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- 1. Introduction to MaterIals scIence forengIneers James F. Shackelford University of California, Davis Boston columbus Indianapolis new York san francisco Upper saddle river amsterdam cape town Dubai london Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal toronto Delhi Mexico city são Paulo sydney Hong Kong seoul singapore taipei tokyo eIgHtH eDItIon Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horton Executive Editor: Holly Stark Editorial Assistant: Sandra Rodriguez Executive Marketing Manager: Tim Galligan Marketing Assistant: Jon Bryant Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno Production Program Manager: Clare Romeo Director of Operations: Nick Sklitsis Operations Specialist: Linda Sager Cover Designer: Black Horse Designs Cover Photo: Eye of Science / Science Source / Photo
- 2. Researchers Image Permission Coordinator:Karen Sanatar Text Permission Coordinator: Michael Farmer Full-service Project Management: Pavithra Jayapaul Composition: Jouve India Printer/Binder: Edwards Bros. Malloy State Street Cover Printer: PhoenixColor Hagerstown Typeface: 10/12 Times Ten LT Std Roman Copyright © 2015, 2009, 2005 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permissions should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use materials from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Higher Education, Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. Cover photo: The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a powerful tool for inspecting materials in order to better understand their performance in engineering designs. In this SEM image of a carbon fiber-reinforced ceramic brake disc, the silicon carbide matrix is shown in yellow and carbon fibers in blue. This composite material provides features of both materials––the hardness and abrasion resistance of silicon carbide with the stress absorbing character of the embedded carbon fibers. The ceramic composite can last four times longer than a
- 3. conventional steel brakedisc. Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the development, research, and testing of theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs. Pearson Education Ltd., London Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd Pearson Education Canada, Inc. Pearson Education—Japan Pearson Education Australia PTY, Limited Pearson Education North Asia, Ltd., Hong Kong Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shackelford, James F. Introduction to materials science for engineers / James F. Shackelford, University of California, Davis. — Eighth Edition. pages cm
- 4. ISBN 978-0-13-382665-4 —ISBN 0-13-382665-1 1. Materials. I. Title. TA403.S515 2014 620.1'1—dc23 2013048426 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-382665-4 ISBN-10: 0-13-382665-1 Dedicated to Penelope, Scott, Megumi, and Mia This page intentionally left blank contents Preface ix About the Author xvi 1 Materials for Engineering 1 1.1 the Material World 1 1.2 Materials science and engineering 2 1.3 six Materials that changed Your World 3 steel BrIDges— IntroDUcIng Metals 3 lUcalox laMPs— IntroDUcIng ceraMIcs 4
- 5. oPtIcal fIBers— IntroDUcIngglasses 9 nYlon ParacHUtes— IntroDUcIng PolYMers 10 Kevlar®-reInforceD tIres— IntroDUcIng coMPosItes 13 sIlIcon cHIPs— IntroDUcIng seMIconDUctors 14 1.4 Processing and selecting Materials 15 1.5 looking at Materials by Powers of ten 17 PArt I the Fundamentals 2 Atomic Bonding 23 2.1 atomic structure 23 2.2 the Ionic Bond 29 coorDInatIon nUMBer 33 2.3 the covalent Bond 41 2.4 the Metallic Bond 47 2.5 the secondary, or van der Waals, Bond 49 2.6 Materials— the Bonding classification 52 3 Crystalline Structure— Perfection 59 3.1 seven systems and fourteen lattices 59 3.2 Metal structures 63 3.3 ceramic structures 67 3.4 Polymeric structures 76 3.5 semiconductor structures 77 3.6 lattice Positions, Directions, and Planes 81
- 6. 3.7 x- rayDiffraction 93 4 Crystal Defects and Noncrystalline Structure— Imperfection 104 4.1 the solid solution— chemical Imperfection 104 4.2 Point Defects— Zero- Dimensional Imperfections 110 4.3 linear Defects, or Dislocations— one- Dimensional Imperfections 112 4.4 Planar Defects— two- Dimensional Imperfections 114 4.5 noncrystalline solids— three- Dimensional Imperfections 118 5 Diffusion 126 5.1 thermally activated Processes 126 5.2 thermal Production of Point Defects 130 5.3 Point Defects and solid- state Diffusion 132 5.4 steady- state Diffusion 142 5.5 alternate Diffusion Paths 146 6 Mechanical Behavior 152 6.1 stress versus strain 152 Metals 153 ceraMIcs anD glasses 164 PolYMers 168
- 7. 6.2 elastic Deformation173 6.3 Plastic Deformation 174 6.4 Hardness 181 6.5 creep and stress relaxation 185 vi Contents 6.6 viscoelastic Deformation 192 InorganIc glasses 194 organIc PolYMers 196 elastoMers 199 7 thermal Behavior 210 7.1 Heat capacity 210 7.2 thermal expansion 213 7.3 thermal conductivity 216 7.4 thermal shock 221 8 Failure Analysis and Prevention 227 8.1 Impact energy 228 8.2 fracture toughness 233 8.3 fatigue 237 8.4 nondestructive testing 246 8.5 failure analysis and Prevention 249 9 Phase Diagrams— Equilibrium Microstructural Development 257 9.1 the Phase rule 258 9.2 the Phase Diagram 261
- 8. coMPlete solID solUtIon262 eUtectIc DIagraM WItH no solID solUtIon 265 eUtectIc DIagraM WItH lIMIteD solID solUtIon 267 eUtectoID DIagraM 270 PerItectIc DIagraM 271 general BInarY DIagraMs 275 9.3 the lever rule 281 9.4 Microstructural Development During slow cooling 285 10 Kinetics— Heat treatment 304 10.1 time— the third Dimension 304 10.2 the ttt Diagram 309 DIffUsIonal transforMatIons 310 DIffUsIonless (MartensItIc) transforMatIons 311 Heat treatMent of steel 316 10.3 Hardenability 324 10.4 Precipitation Hardening 327 10.5 annealing 331 colD WorK 331 recoverY 332
- 9. recrYstallIZatIon 332 graIn groWtH334 10.6 the Kinetics of Phase transformations for nonmetals 335 PArt II Materials and their Applications 11 Structural Materials— Metals, Ceramics, and Glasses 349 11.1 Metals 349 ferroUs alloYs 350 nonferroUs alloYs 356 11.2 ceramics and glasses 360 ceraMIcs— crYstallIne MaterIals 361 glasses— noncrYstallIne MaterIals 362 glass- ceraMIcs 364 11.3 Processing the structural Materials 366 ProcessIng of Metals 367 ProcessIng of ceraMIcs anD glasses 374 12 Structural Materials— Polymers and Composites 383 12.1 Polymers 383 PolYMerIZatIon 384
- 10. strUctUral featUres ofPolYMers 389 tHerMoPlastIc PolYMers 393 tHerMosettIng PolYMers 394 aDDItIves 396 12.2 composites 398 fIBer- reInforceD coMPosItes 398 aggregate coMPosItes 404 ProPertY averagIng 406 MecHanIcal ProPertIes of coMPosItes 412 12.3 Processing the structural Materials 417 ProcessIng of PolYMers 417 ProcessIng of coMPosItes 420 13 Electronic Materials 429 13.1 charge carriers and conduction 430 13.2 energy levels and energy Bands 434 Contents vii 13.3 conductors 440 tHerMocoUPles 443 sUPerconDUctors 444
- 11. 13.4 Insulators 452 ferroelectrIcs453 PIeZoelectrIcs 456 13.5 semiconductors 460 IntrInsIc, eleMental seMIconDUctors 461 extrInsIc, eleMental seMIconDUctors 466 coMPoUnD seMIconDUctors 478 ProcessIng of seMIconDUctors 482 seMIconDUctor DevIces 485 13.6 composites 495 13.7 electrical classification of Materials 496 14 Optical and Magnetic Materials 504 14.1 optical Materials 505 oPtIcal ProPertIes 508 oPtIcal sYsteMs anD DevIces 518 14.2 Magnetic Materials 526 ferroMagnetIsM 530 ferrIMagnetIsM 536 MetallIc Magnets 540 ceraMIc Magnets 546
- 12. 15 Materials inEngineering Design 557 15.1 Material Properties— engineering Design Parameters 557 15.2 selection of structural Materials— case studies 562 MaterIals for HIP- anD Knee- JoInt rePlaceMent 563 Metal sUBstItUtIon WItH coMPosItes 566 15.3 selection of electronic, optical, and Magnetic Materials— case studies 567 lIgHt- eMIttIng DIoDe 568 glass for sMart PHone anD taBlet toUcH screens 571 aMorPHoUs Metal for electrIc- PoWer DIstrIBUtIon 572 15.4 Materials and our environment 573 envIronMental DegraDatIon of MaterIals 573 envIronMental asPects of DesIgn 589 recYclIng 592 APPENDIx 1 Physical and Chemical Data for the Elements A- 1 APPENDIx 2
- 13. Atomic and Ionicradii of the Elements A- 4 APPENDIx 3 Constants and Conversion Factors A- 7 APPENDIx 4 Properties of the Structural Materials A- 8 APPENDIx 5 Properties of the Electronic, Optical, and Magnetic Materials A- 17 APPENDIx 6 Glossary A- 22 Answers to Practice Problems (PP) and Odd-Numbered Problems AN-1 Index I-1 This page intentionally left blank ix This book is designed for a first course in engineering materials. The field that covers this area of the engineering profession has come to be known as “materi-
- 14. als science andengineering.” To me, this label serves two important functions. First, it is an accurate description of the balance between scientific principles and practical engineering that is required in selecting the proper materials for modern technology. Second, it gives us a guide to organizing this book. After a short introductory chapter, “science” serves as a label for Part I on “The Fun- damentals.” Chapters 2 through 10 cover various topics in applied physics and chemistry. These are the foundation for understanding the principles of “mate- rials science.” I assume that some students take this course at the freshman or sophomore level and may not yet have taken their required coursework in chem- istry and physics. As a result, Part I is intended to be self- contained. A previous course in chemistry or physics is certainly helpful, but should not be necessary. If an entire class has finished freshman chemistry, Chapter 2 (atomic bonding) could be left as optional reading, but it is important not to overlook the role of bonding in defining the fundamental types of engineering materials. The remain- ing chapters in Part I are less optional, as they describe the key topics of materials science. Chapter 3 outlines the ideal, crystalline structures of important materi- als. Chapter 4 introduces the structural imperfections found in real, engineering materials. These structural defects are the bases of solid- state diffusion (Chap-
- 15. ter 5) andplastic deformation in metals (Chapter 6). Chapter 6 also includes a broad range of mechanical behavior for various engineering materials. Similarly, Chapter 7 covers the thermal behavior of these materials. Subjecting materials to various mechanical and thermal processes can lead to their failure, the subject of Chapter 8. In addition, the systematic analysis of material failures can lead to the prevention of future catastrophes. Chapters 9 and 10 are especially important in providing a bridge between “materials science” and “materials engineering.” Phase diagrams (Chapter 9) are an effective tool for describing the equilibrium microstructures of practical engineering materials. Instructors will note that this topic is introduced in a descriptive and empirical way. Since some students in this course may not have taken a course in thermodynamics, I avoid the use of the free- energy property. Kinetics (Chapter 10) is the foundation of the heat treat- ment of engineering materials. The words “materials engineering” give us a label for Part II of the book that deals with “Materials and Their Applications.” First, we discuss the five categories of structural materials: metals, ceramics, and glasses (Chapter 11) and polymers and composites (Chapter 12). In both chapters, we give examples of each type of structural material and describe their processing, the techniques used to produce
- 16. the materials. InChapter 13, we discuss electronic materials and discover a sixth Preface x Preface category of materials, semiconductors, based on an electrical rather than bond- ing classification system. Metals are generally good electrical conductors, while ceramics, glasses, and polymers are generally good insulators, and semiconduc- tors are intermediate. The exceptional discovery of superconductivity in certain ceramic materials at relatively high temperatures augments the long- standing use of superconductivity in certain metals at very low temperatures. Chapter 14 covers optical behavior that determines the application of many materials, from traditional glass windows to some of the latest advances in telecommunications. A wide variety of materials is also discussed in Chapter 14. Traditional metallic and ceramic magnets are being supplemented by superconducting metals and ceramics, which can provide some intriguing design applications based on their magnetic behavior. Finally, in Chapter 15 (Materials in Engineering Design), we see that our previous discussions of properties have left us with “design param- eters.” Herein lies a final bridge between the principles of
- 17. materials science and theuse of those materials in modern engineering designs. We also must note that chemical degradation, radiation damage, wear, and recycling must be considered in making a final judgment on a materials application. I hope that students and instructors alike will find what I have attempted to produce: a clear and readable textbook organized around the title of this impor- tant branch of engineering. It is also worth noting that materials play a central role across the broad spectrum of contemporary science and technology. In the report Science: The End of the Frontier? from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 10 of the 26 technologies identified at the forefront of economic growth are various types of advanced materials. In the presentation of this book, I have attempted to be generous with examples and practice problems within each chapter, and I have tried to be even more generous with the end- of- chapter homework problems (with the level of difficulty for the homework problems clearly noted). Problems dealing with the role of materials in the engineering design process are noted with the use of a design icon . One of the most enjoyable parts of writing the book was the preparation of biographical footnotes for those cases in which a person’s name has become intimately associated with a basic concept in
- 18. materials science and engineering.I suspect that most readers will share my fascination with these great contributors to science and engineering from the distant and not- so- distant past. In addition to a substantial set of useful data, the Appendices provide convenient location of materials properties and key term definitions. The various editions of this book have been produced during a period of fundamental change in the field of materials science and engineering. This change was exemplified by the change of name in the Fall of 1986 for the “American Society for Metals” to “ASM International”—a society for materials, as opposed to metals only. An adequate introduction to materials science can no longer be a traditional treatment of physical metallurgy with supplementary introductions to nonmetallic materials. The first edition was based on a balanced treatment of the full spectrum of engineering materials. Subsequent editions have reinforced that balanced approach with the timely addition of new materials that are playing key roles in the economy of the twenty- first century: lightweight metal alloys, “high tech” ceramics for advanced structural applications, engineering polymers for metal substitution, advanced composites for aerospace applications, increasingly miniaturized semiconductor devices, high- temperature ceramic superconductors, fullerene
- 19. carbons, graphene, Preface xi engineeredbiomaterials, and biological materials. Since the debut of the first edi- tion, we have also seen breakthroughs in materials characterization, such as the evolution of the high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM), and in materials processing, such as additive manufacturing (AM). “Feature boxes” have been introduced in recent editions. These one- or two-page case stud- ies labeled “The Material World” are located in each chapter to provide a focus on some fascinating topics in the world of both engineered and natural materials. A feature continued from the Seventh Edition is to emphasize the concept of “Powers of Ten.” In Chapter 1, we point out that an underlying principle of mate- rials science is that understanding the behavior of materials in engineering designs (on the human scale) is obtained by looking at mechanisms that occur at various fine scales, such as the atomic-scale diffusion of carbon atoms involved in the heat treatment of steel. There is a full ten orders of magnitude difference between the size of typical engineered products and the size of typical atoms. Much of modern engineering practice has depended on engineering designs based on microme-
- 20. ter-scale structures, suchas the transistors in an integrated circuit. Increasingly, engineers are designing systems involving the nanometer-scale. At various times throughout the text, a Powers of Ten icon will be used to highlight discussions that demonstrate this structure-property relationship. New to this Edition As with previous editions, an effort has been made to add the most important advances in engineering materials, as well as respond to recommendations of previous users for additional content coverage. The results are: • Updated discussions of the expanding importance of materials in nanotech- nology throughout the text; • Examples of the role of materials in flat screen and flat panel technology throughout the text; • Addition of graphene to the discussion of advances in carbon materials in Chapter 3; • Coverage of the rapidly emerging field of additive manufacturing (by 3D printing) in Chapter 11; • A candid discussion of the increasing role of biological materials in materi- als science and how that expands the definition of this field (Feature Box in
- 21. Chapter 12); • Expandedcoverage of ferroelectrics and piezoelectrics in Chapter 13; • Coverage of optical and magnetic materials in a new Chapter 14; • Expanded coverage of corrosion in Chapter 15. Supplementary Material A Solution s Manual is available to adopters of this textbook. The