Computer Networking network layer chapter 4

Chapter 4
Network Layer
Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012
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All material copyright 1996-2013
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
Network Layer 4-1

Network Layer 4-2
Chapter 4: network layer
chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network layer
services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 broadcast, multicast
 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-3
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 what’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
4.5 routing algorithms
 link state
 distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.6 routing in the Internet
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-4
Network layer
 transport segment from
sending to receiving
host
 on sending side
encapsulates segments
into datagrams
 on receiving side,
delivers segments to
transport layer
 network layer protocols
in every host, router
 router examines header
fields in all IP
datagrams passing
application
transport
network
data link
physical
application
transport
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical

Network Layer 4-5
Two key network-layer
functions
 forwarding: move
packets from router’s
input to appropriate
router output
 routing: determine
route taken by packets
from source to dest.
 routing algorithms
analogy:
 routing: process of
planning trip from
source to dest
 forwarding: process of
getting through single
interchange

Network Layer 4-6
1
2
3
0111
value in arriving
packet’s header
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100
0101
0111
1001
3
2
2
1
Interplay between routing and forwarding
routing algorithm determines
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding at this router

Network Layer 4-7
Connection setup
 3rd important function in some network
architectures:
 ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual connection
 routers get involved
 network vs transport layer connection service:
 network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
 transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-8
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel”
transporting datagrams from sender to
receiver?
example services for
individual
datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery
 guaranteed delivery
with less than 40 msec
delay
example services for a
flow of datagrams:
 in-order datagram
delivery
 guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on changes
in inter-packet spacing

Network Layer 4-9
Network layer service models:
Network
Architecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
Service
Model
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constant
rate
guaranteed
rate
guaranteed
minimum
none
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestion
feedback
no (inferred
via loss)
no
congestion
no
congestion
yes
no
Guarantees ?

Network Layer 4-10
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-11
Connection, connection-less
service
 datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 virtual-circuit network provides network-layer
connection service
 analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented /
connectionless transport-layer services, but:
 service: host-to-host
 no choice: network provides one or the
other
 implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-12
Virtual circuits
 call setup, teardown for each call before data can
flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination
host address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state”
for each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)
“source-to-dest path behaves much like
telephone circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

Network Layer 4-13
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
 packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
 VC number can be changed on each link.
 new VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-14
VC forwarding table
12 22 32
1
2
3
VC number
interface
number
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #
1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …
forwarding table in
northwest router:
VC routers maintain connection state informati

Network Layer 4-15
application
transport
network
data link
physical
Virtual circuits: signaling
protocols
 used to setup, maintain teardown VC
 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet
1. initiate call 2. incoming call
3. accept call
4. call connected
5. data flow begins 6. receive data
application
transport
network
data link
physical

Network Layer 4-16
Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host
address
1. send datagrams
application
transport
network
data link
physical
application
transport
network
data link
physical
2. receive datagrams

Network Layer 4-17
1
2
3
Datagram forwarding table
IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
routing algorithm
dest address output link
address-range 1
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4
3
2
2
1
4 billion IP addresses,
so rather than list
individual destination
address
list range of addresses
(aggregate table
entries)

Network Layer 4-18
Destination Address Range
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
through
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000
through
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000
through
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111
otherwise
Link Interface
0
1
2
3
Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?
Datagram forwarding table

Network Layer 4-19
Longest prefix matching
Destination Address Range
11001000 00010111 00010*** *********
11001000 00010111 00011000 *********
11001000 00010111 00011*** *********
otherwise
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010
examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
which interface?
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix
that matches destination address.
longest prefix matching
Link interface
0
1
2
3

Network Layer 4-20
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (datagram)
 data exchange among
computers
 “elastic” service, no strict
timing req.
 many link types
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult
 “smart” end systems
(computers)
 can adapt, perform control,
error recovery
 simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”
ATM (VC)
 evolved from telephony
 human conversation:
 strict timing, reliability
requirements
 need for guaranteed
service
 “dumb” end systems
 telephones
 complexity inside
network

Network Layer 4-21
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-22
Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
high-seed
switching
fabric
routing
processor
router input ports router output ports
forwarding data
plane (hardware)
routing, management
control plane (software)
forwarding tables computed,
pushed to input ports

Network Layer 4-23
line
termination
link
layer
protocol
(receive)
lookup,
forwarding
queueing
Input port functions
decentralized switching:
 given datagram dest., lookup output
port using forwarding table in input port
memory (“match plus action”)
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer:
e.g., Ethernet
see chapter 5
switch
fabric

Network Layer 4-24
Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to
appropriate output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
 often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
 N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics
memory
memory
bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-25
Switching via memory
first generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct
control of CPU
 packet copied to system’s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings
per datagram)
input
port
(e.g.,
Ethernet)
memory
output
port
(e.g.,
Ethernet)
system bus

Network Layer 4-26
Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port
memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
 bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600:
sufficient speed for access and
enterprise routers
bus

Network Layer 4-27
Switching via interconnection
network
 overcome bus bandwidth
limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors
in multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells,
switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network
crossbar

Network Layer 4-28
Output ports
 buffering required when datagrams
arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate
 scheduling discipline chooses among
queued datagrams for transmission
line
termination
link
layer
protocol
(send)
switch
fabric
datagram
buffer
queueing
This slide in HUGELY important!
Datagram (packets) can be lost
due to congestion, lack of buffers
Priority scheduling – who gets best
performance, network neutrality

Network Layer 4-29
Output port queueing
 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds
output line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
at t, packets more
from input to output
one packet time later
switch
fabric
switch
fabric

Network Layer 4-30
How much buffering?
 RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering
equal to “typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times
link capacity C
 e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 recent recommendation: with N flows,
buffering equal to
RTT C
.
N

Network Layer 4-31
Input port queuing
 fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing
may occur at input queues
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at
front of queue prevents others in queue from moving
forward
output port contention:
only one red datagram can be
transferred.
lower red packet is blocked
switch
fabric
one packet time
later: green packet
experiences HOL
blocking
switch
fabric

Network Layer 4-32
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-33
The Internet network layer
forwarding
table
host, router network layer functions:
routing protocols
• path selection
• RIP, OSPF, BGP
IP protocol
• addressing conventions
• datagram format
• packet handling conventions
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router
“signaling”
transport layer: TCP, UDP
link layer
physical layer
network
layer

Network Layer 4-34
ver length
32 bits
data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)
16-bit identifier
header
checksum
time to
live
32 bit source IP address
head.
len
type of
service
flgs
fragment
offset
upper
layer
32 bit destination IP address
options (if any)
IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number
header length
(bytes)
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to
total datagram
length (bytes)
“type” of data
for
fragmentation/
reassembly
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
e.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit.
how much overhead?
 20 bytes of TCP
 20 bytes of IP
 = 40 bytes + app
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-35
IP fragmentation, reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-
level frame
 different link types,
different MTUs
 large IP datagram
divided (“fragmented”)
within net
 one datagram
becomes several
datagrams
 “reassembled” only
at final destination
 IP header bits used
to identify, order
fragmentation:
in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
reassembly
…
…

Network Layer 4-36
ID
=x
offset
=0
fragflag
=0
length
=4000
ID
=x
offset
=0
fragflag
=1
length
=1500
ID
=x
offset
=185
fragflag
=1
length
=1500
ID
=x
offset
=370
fragflag
=0
length
=1040
one large datagram becomes
several smaller datagrams
example:
 4000 byte datagram
 MTU = 1500 bytes
1480 bytes in
data field
offset =
1480/8
IP fragmentation, reassembly

Network Layer 4-37
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-38
IP addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host,
router interface
 interface: connection
between host/router
and physical link
 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
 host typically has one or
two interfaces (e.g.,
wired Ethernet, wireless
802.11)
 IP addresses
associated with each
interface
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
223 1 1
1

Network Layer 4-39
IP addressing: introduction
Q: how are interfaces
actually connected?
A: we’ll learn about
that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
A: wired Ethernet interfaces
connected by Ethernet switches
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
connected by WiFi base station
For now: don’t need to worry
about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
intervening router)

Network Layer 4-40
Subnets
IP address:
subnet part - high
order bits
host part - low order
bits
what’s a subnet ?
device interfaces with
same subnet part of
IP address
can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
subnet
223.1.1.2
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1

Network Layer 4-41
recipe
 to determine the
subnets, detach
each interface from
its host or router,
creating islands of
isolated networks
 each isolated
network is called a
subnet
subnet mask: /24
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.0/24
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
subnet
223.1.1.2
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1

Network Layer 4-42
how many? 223.1.1.1
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
223.1.2.6
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.2
223.1.7.0
223.1.7.1
223.1.8.0
223.1.8.1
223.1.9.1
223.1.9.2
Subnets

Network Layer 4-43
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
subnet
part
host
part
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-44
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?
 hard-coded by system admin in a file
 Windows: control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-45
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from
network server when it joins network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
 support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-46
DHCP client-server scenario
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.0/24
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
DHCP
server
arriving DHCP
client needs
address in this
network

Network Layer 4-47
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 arriving
client
DHCP discover
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP client-server
scenario
Broadcast: is there a
DHCP server out there?
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
server! Here’s an IP
address you can use
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
that IP address!
Broadcast: OK. You’ve
got that IP address!

Network Layer 4-48
DHCP: more than IP
addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host
portion of address)

Network Layer 4-49
 connecting laptop
needs its IP address,
addr of first-hop router,
addr of DNS server:
use DHCP
router with DHCP
server built into
router
 DHCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
encapsulated in IP,
encapsulated in 802.1
Ethernet
 Ethernet frame broadcast
(dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on
LAN, received at router
running DHCP server
 Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed
to DHCP
168.1.1.1
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP: example

Network Layer 4-50
 DCP server formulates
DHCP ACK containing
client’s IP address, IP
address of first-hop
router for client, name
& IP address of DNS
server
 encapsulation of
DHCP server, frame
forwarded to client,
demuxing up to DHCP
at client
DHCP: example
router with DHCP
server built into
router
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
DHCP
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
 client now knows its IP
address, name and IP
address of DSN server,
IP address of its first-
hop router

Network Layer 4-51
DHCP:
Wireshark output
(home LAN)
Message type: Boot Reply (2)
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Server host name not given
Boot file name not given
Magic cookie: (OK)
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
reply
Message type: Boot Request (1)
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Server host name not given
Boot file name not given
Magic cookie: (OK)
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request
Option: (61) Client identifier
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A;
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……
request

Network Layer 4-52
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s
address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-53
Hierarchical addressing: route
aggregation
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
200.23.16.0/23
200.23.18.0/23
200.23.30.0/23
Fly-By-Night-ISP
Organization 0
Organization 7
Internet
Organization 1
ISPs-R-Us
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 2
.
.
.
.
.
.
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Network Layer 4-54
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
200.23.16.0/23
200.23.18.0/23
200.23.30.0/23
Fly-By-Night-ISP
Organization 0
Organization 7
Internet
Organization 1
ISPs-R-Us
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 2
.
.
.
.
.
.
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes

Network Layer 4-55
IP addressing: the last word...
Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-56
NAT: network address
translation
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3
10.0.0.4
138.76.29.7
local network
(e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24
rest of
Internet
datagrams with source or
destination in this network
have 10.0.0/24 address for
source, destination (as usual)
all datagrams leaving
local
network have same
single source NAT IP
address:
138.76.29.7,different

Network Layer 4-57
motivation: local network uses just one IP address
as far as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just
one IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
translation

Network Layer 4-58
implementation: NAT router must:
 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #)
of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new
port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP
address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port
#) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT
table
translation

Network Layer 4-59
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
1
10.0.0.4
138.76.29.7
1: host 10.0.0.1
sends datagram to
128.119.40.186, 80
NAT translation table
WAN side addr LAN side addr
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
…… ……
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
2
2: NAT router
changes datagram
source addr from
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3
3: reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 5001
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
translation

Network Layer 4-60
 16-bit port-number field:
 60,000 simultaneous connections with a
single LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by
app designers, e.g., P2P applications
 address shortage should instead be solved
by IPv6
translation

Network Layer 4-61
NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to
server with address 10.0.0.1
 server address 10.0.0.1 local to
LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr)
 only one externally visible
NATed address: 138.76.29.7
 solution1: statically configure
NAT to forward incoming
connection requests at given
port to server
 e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1
port 25000
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.4
NAT
router
138.76.29.7
client
?

Network Layer 4-62
 solution 2: Universal Plug and
Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway
Device (IGD) Protocol. Allows
NATed host to:
 learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
 add/remove port mappings
(with lease times)
i.e., automate static NAT port
map configuration
10.0.0.1
NAT
router
IGD

Network Layer 4-63
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 external client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections
138.76.29.7
client
1. connection to
relay initiated
by NATed host
2. connection to
relay initiated
by client
3. relaying
established
NAT
router
10.0.0.1

Network Layer 4-64
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-65
ICMP: internet control message
protocol
 used by hosts & routers
to communicate
network-level
information
 error reporting:
unreachable host,
network, port, protocol
 echo request/reply (used
by ping)
 network-layer “above”
IP:
 ICMP msgs carried in IP
datagrams
 ICMP message: type,
code plus first 8 bytes
of IP datagram causing
error
Type Code description
0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
3 1 dest host unreachable
3 2 dest protocol unreachable
3 3 dest port unreachable
3 6 dest network unknown
3 7 dest host unknown
4 0 source quench (congestion
control - not used)
8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-66
Traceroute and ICMP
 source sends series of
UDP segments to dest
 first set has TTL =1
 second set has TTL=2,
etc.
 unlikely port number
 when nth set of
datagrams arrives to
nth router:
 router discards datagrams
 and sends source ICMP
messages (type 11, code
0)
 ICMP messages includes
name of router & IP
address
 when ICMP messages
arrives, source records
RTTs
stopping criteria:
 UDP segment
eventually arrives at
destination host
 destination returns
ICMP “port
unreachable” message
(type 3, code 3)
 source stops
3 probes
3 probes
3 probes

Network Layer 4-67
IPv6: motivation
 initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to
be completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:
 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-68
IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
data
destination address
(128 bits)
source address
(128 bits)
payload len next hdr hop limit
flow label
pri
ver
32 bits

Network Layer 4-69
Other changes from IPv4
 checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
 options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-70
Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
 not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
 no “flag days”
 how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in
IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers
IPv4 source, dest addr
IPv4 header fields
IPv4 datagram
IPv6 datagram
IPv4 payload
UDP/TCP payload
IPv6 source dest addr
IPv6 header fields

Network Layer 4-71
Tunneling
physical view:
IPv4 IPv4
A B
IPv6 IPv6
E
IPv6 IPv6
F
C D
logical view:
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers
E
IPv6 IPv6
F
A B
IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-72
flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data
A-to-B:
IPv6
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
src:B
dest: E
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
E-to-F:
IPv6
flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
src:B
dest: E
physical view:
A B
IPv6 IPv6
E
IPv6 IPv6
F
C D
logical view:
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers
E
IPv6 IPv6
F
A B
IPv6 IPv6
Tunneling
IPv4 IPv4

Network Layer 4-73
IPv6:
adoption
 US National Institutes of Standards estimate
[2013]:
 ~3% of industry IP routers
 ~11% of US gov’t routers
 Long (long!) time for deployment, use
 20 years and counting!
 think of application-level changes in last 20 years:
WWW, Facebook, …
 Why?

Network Layer 4-74
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-75
1
2
3
IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
routing algorithm
dest address output link
address-range 1
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4
3
2
2
1
Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm determines
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding at this router

Network Layer 4-76
u
y
x
w
v
z
2
2
1
3
1
1
2
5
3
5
graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
Graph abstraction
aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,
P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-77
Graph abstraction: costs
u
y
x
w
v
z
2
2
1
3
1
1
2
5
3
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
e.g., c(w,z) = 5
cost could always be 1, or
inversely related to bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion
cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)
key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?
routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer 4-78
Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized
information?
global:
 all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
 “link state” algorithms
decentralized:
 router knows physically-
connected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors
 iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
 “distance vector”
algorithms
Q: static or dynamic?
static:
 routes change slowly
over time
dynamic:
 routes change more
quickly
 periodic update
 in response to link
cost changes

Network Layer 4-79
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-80
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 net topology, link costs
known to all nodes
 accomplished via “link
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 computes least cost
paths from one node
(‘source”) to all other
nodes
 gives forwarding table for
that node
 iterative: after k
iterations, know least
cost path to k dest.’s
notation:
 c(x,y): link cost from
node x to y; = ∞ if not
direct neighbors
 D(v): current value of
cost of path from source
to dest. v
 p(v): predecessor node
along path from source
to v
 N': set of nodes whose
least cost path
definitively known

Network Layer 4-81
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-82
w
3
4
v
x
u
5
3
7 4
y
8
z
2
7
9
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N'
D(v)
p(v)
0
1
2
3
4
5
D(w)
p(w)
D(x)
p(x)
D(y)
p(y)
D(z)
p(z)
u ∞
∞
7,u 3,u 5,u
uw ∞
11,w
6,w 5,u
14,x
11,w
6,w
uwx
uwxv 14,x
10,v
uwxvy 12,y
notes:
 construct shortest path tree
by tracing predecessor
nodes
 ties can exist (can be broken
arbitrarily)
uwxvyz

Network Layer 4-83
Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
N'
u
ux
uxy
uxyv
uxyvw
uxyvwz
D(v),p(v)
2,u
2,u
2,u
D(w),p(w)
5,u
4,x
3,y
3,y
D(x),p(x)
1,u
D(y),p(y)
∞
2,x
D(z),p(z)
∞
∞
4,y
4,y
4,y
u
y
x
w
v
z
2
2
1
3
1
1
2
5
3
5

Network Layer 4-84
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
u
y
x
w
v
z
resulting shortest-path tree from u:
v
x
y
w
z
(u,v)
(u,x)
(u,x)
(u,x)
(u,x)
destination link
resulting forwarding table in u:

Network Layer 4-85
Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
 e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried
traffic:
A
D
C
B
1 1+e
e
0
e
1 1
0 0
initially
A
D
C
B
given these costs,
find new routing….
resulting in new costs
2+e 0
0
0
1+e 1
A
D
C
B
given these costs,
0 2+e
1+e
1
0 0
A
D
C
B
given these costs,
2+e 0
0
0
1+e 1

Network Layer 4-86
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-87
Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)
let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
v
cost to neighbor v
min taken over all neighbors v of x
cost from neighbor v to destination y

Network Layer 4-88
Bellman-Ford example
u
y
x
w
v
z
2
2
1
3
1
1
2
5
3
5
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
B-F equation says:

Network Layer 4-89
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 node x:
 knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors.
For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-90
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N
 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate
Dx(y) converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-91
iterative,
asynchronous: each
local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change
 DV update message
from neighbor
distributed:
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
DV changes
 neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary
wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
recompute estimates
if DV to any dest has
changed, notify neighbors
each node:

Network Layer 4-92
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 7
∞ ∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
from
cost to
from
from
x y z
x
y
z
0
x y z
x
y
z
∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
cost to
x y z
x
y
z
∞ ∞ ∞
7 1 0
cost to
∞
2 0 1
∞ ∞ ∞
2 0 1
7 1 0
time
x z
1
2
7
y
node x
table
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
3
2
node y
table
node z
table
cost to
from

Network Layer 4-93
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 3
from
cost to
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 7
from
cost to
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 3
from
cost to
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 3
from
cost to
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 7
from
cost to
2 0 1
7 1 0
2 0 1
3 1 0
2 0 1
3 1 0
2 0 1
3 1 0
2 0 1
3 1 0
time
x y z
x
y
z
0 2 7
∞ ∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
from
cost to
from
from
x y z
x
y
z
0
x y z
x
y
z
∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
cost to
x y z
x
y
z
∞ ∞ ∞
7 1 0
cost to
∞
2 0 1
∞ ∞ ∞
2 0 1
7 1 0
time
x z
1
2
7
y
node x
table
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
3
2
node y
table
node z
table
cost to
from

Network Layer 4-94
Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost
change
 updates routing info,
recalculates
distance vector
 if DV changes, notify neighbors
“good
news
travels
fast”
x z
1
4
50
y
1
t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its
neighbors.
t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-95
Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost
change
 bad news travels slow - “count
to infinity” problem!
 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text
x z
1
4
50
y
60
poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t
route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve count to infinity
problem?

Network Layer 4-96
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity
 LS: with n nodes, E links,
O(nE) msgs sent
 DV: exchange between
neighbors only
 convergence time varies
speed of convergence
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs
 may have oscillations
 DV: convergence time varies
 may be routing loops
 count-to-infinity problem
robustness: what happens if
router malfunctions?
LS:
 node can advertise
incorrect link cost
 each node computes only
its own table
DV:
 DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
 each node’s table used by
others
• error propagate thru
network

Network Layer 4-97
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-98
Hierarchical routing
scale: with 600 million
destinations:
 can’t store all dest’s in
routing tables!
 routing table exchange
would swamp links!
administrative
autonomy
 internet = network of
networks
 each network admin may
want to control routing in
its own network
our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice

Network Layer 4-99
 aggregate routers
into regions,
“autonomous
systems” (AS)
 routers in same AS
run same routing
protocol
 “intra-AS” routing
protocol
 routers in different
AS can run different
intra-AS routing
protocol
gateway router:
 at “edge” of its own AS
 has link to router in
another AS
Hierarchical routing

Network Layer 4-100
3b
1d
3a
1c
2a
AS3
AS1
AS2
1a
2c
2b
1b
Intra-AS
Routing
algorithm
Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm
Forwarding
table
3c
Interconnected ASes
 forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
routing algorithm
 intra-AS sets entries
for internal dests
 inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests

Network Layer 4-101
Inter-AS tasks
 suppose router in AS1
receives datagram
destined outside of
AS1:
 router should forward
packet to gateway
router, but which
one?
AS1 must:
1. learn which dests are
reachable through
AS2, which through
AS3
2. propagate this
reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks

Network Layer 4-102
Example: setting forwarding table in router
1d
 suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x
reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not via AS2
 inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all
internal routers
 router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its
interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
 installs forwarding table entry (x,I)
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
x

Network Layer 4-103
Example: choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
which gateway it should forward packets towards for
dest x
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
x
?

Network Layer 4-104
learn from inter-AS
protocol that subnet
x is reachable via
multiple gateways
use routing info
from intra-AS
protocol to determine
costs of least-cost
paths to each
of the gateways
hot potato routing:
choose the gateway
that has the
smallest least cost
determine from
forwarding table the
interface I that leads
to least-cost gateway.
Enter (x,I) in
forwarding table
Example: choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for
dest x
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
 hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.

Network Layer 4-105
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-106
Intra-AS Routing
 also known as interior gateway protocols
(IGP)
 most common intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-107
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
 distance vector algorithm
 distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response
message (aka advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP
addressing sense)
D
C
B
A
u v
w
x
y
z
subnet hops
u 1
v 2
w 2
x 3
y 3
z 2
from router A to destination subnets:

Network Layer 4-108
RIP: example
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
routing table in router D
w x y
z
A
C
D B

Network Layer 4-109
w x y
z
A
C
D B
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
routing table in router D
A 5
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ...
A-to-D advertisement
RIP: example

Network Layer 4-110
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-111
RIP table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-
level process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
physical
link
network forwarding
(IP) table
transport
(UDP)
routed
physical
link
network
(IP)
transprt
(UDP)
routed
forwarding
table

Network Layer 4-112
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 uses link state algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per
neighbor
 advertisements flooded to entire AS
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather
than TCP or UDP
 IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer 4-113
OSPF “advanced” features (not in
RIP)
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path
in RIP)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best
effort ToS; high for real time ToS)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same
topology data base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-114
Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router
area 1
area 2
area 3
backbone
area
border
routers
internal
routers

Network Layer 4-115
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only
know direction (shortest path) to nets in other
areas.
 area border routers: “summarize” distances to
nets in own area, advertise to other Area Border
routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.
Hierarchical
OSPF

Network Layer 4-116
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
inter-domain routing protocol
 “glue that holds the Internet together”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
 eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information
from neighboring ASs.
 iBGP: propagate reachability information to all
AS-internal routers.
 determine “good” routes to other networks based
on reachability information and policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence to
rest of Internet: “I am here”

Network Layer 4-117
BGP basics
 when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:
 AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
 AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP
messages:
 advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (“path
vector” protocol)
 exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections
BGP
message

Network Layer 4-118
BGP basics: distributing path
information
AS3
AS2
3b
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
 using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends
prefix reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all
routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over
1b-to-2a eBGP session
 when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for
prefix in its forwarding table.
eBGP session
iBGP session

Network Layer 4-119
Path attributes and BGP
routes
 advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (may be multiple links from current AS
to next-hop-AS)
 gateway router receiving route advertisement
uses import policy to accept/decline
 e.g., never route through AS x
 policy-based routing

Network Layer 4-120
BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than 1 route to
destination AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-121
BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP
connection
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also
used to close connection

Putting it Altogether:
How Does an Entry Get Into a
Router’s Forwarding Table?
 Answer is complicated!
 Ties together hierarchical routing (Section
4.5.3) with BGP (4.6.3) and OSPF (4.6.2).
 Provides nice overview of BGP!

1
2
3
Dest IP
routing algorithms
prefix output port
138.16.64/22
124.12/16
212/8
…………..
3
2
4
…
How does entry get in forwarding
table?
entry
Assume prefix is
in another AS.

High-level overview
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
2. Router determines output port for prefix
3. Router enters prefix-port in forwarding table
table?

Router becomes aware of
prefix
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
BGP
message
 BGP message contains “routes”
 “route” is a prefix and attributes: AS-PATH, NEXT-
HOP,…
 Example: route:
 Prefix:138.16.64/22 ; AS-PATH: AS3 AS131 ;
NEXT-HOP: 201.44.13.125

Router may receive multiple
routes
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
BGP
message
 Router may receive multiple routes for same
prefix
 Has to select one route

 Router selects route based on shortest AS-
PATH
Select best BGP route to
prefix
 Example:
 AS2 AS17 to 138.16.64/22
 AS3 AS131 AS201 to 138.16.64/22
 What if there is a tie? We’ll come back to
that!
select

Find best intra-route to BGP
route
 Use selected route’s NEXT-HOP attribute
 Route’s NEXT-HOP attribute is the IP address of the
router interface that begins the AS PATH.
 Example:
 AS-PATH: AS2 AS17 ; NEXT-HOP: 111.99.86.55
 Router uses OSPF to find shortest path from 1c
to 111.99.86.55
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
111.99.86.55

Router identifies port for route
 Identifies port along the OSPF shortest path
 Adds prefix-port entry to its forwarding table:
 (138.16.64/22 , port 4)
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks
router
port
1
2 3
4

Hot Potato Routing
 Suppose there two or more best inter-routes.
 Then choose route with closest NEXT-HOP
 Use OSPF to determine which gateway is closest
 Q: From 1c, chose AS3 AS131 or AS2 AS17?
 A: route AS3 AS201 since it is closer
AS3
AS2
3b
3c
3a
AS1
1c
1a
1d
1b
2a
2c
2b
other
networks
other
networks

Summary
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
 via BGP route advertisements from other routers
2. Determine router output port for prefix
 Use BGP route selection to find best inter-AS
route
 Use OSPF to find best intra-AS route leading to
best inter-AS route
 Router identifies router port for that best route
3. Enter prefix-port entry in forwarding table
table?

Network Layer 4-132
BGP routing policy
 A,B,C are provider networks
 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
 X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C
A
B
C
W
X
Y
legend:
customer
network:
provider
network

Network Layer 4-133
BGP routing policy (2)
 A advertises path AW to B
 B advertises path BAW to X
 Should B advertise path BAW to C?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W
nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!
A
B
C
W
X
Y
legend:
customer
network:
provider
network

Network Layer 4-134
Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing
?
policy:
 inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions
needed
scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced
update traffic
performance:
 intra-AS: can focus on performance
 inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-135
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 ICMP
 IPv6
 link state
 distance vector
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: outline

Network Layer 4-136
R1
R2
R3 R4
source
duplication
R1
R2
R3 R4
in-network
duplication
duplicate
creation/transmission
duplicate
duplicate
Broadcast routing
 deliver packets from source to all other nodes
 source duplication is inefficient:
 source duplication: how does source determine
recipient addresses?

Network Layer 4-137
In-network duplication
 flooding: when node receives broadcast
packet, sends copy to all neighbors
 problems: cycles & broadcast storm
 controlled flooding: node only broadcasts pkt
if it hasn’t broadcast same packet before
 node keeps track of packet ids already
broadacsted
 or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
packet if it arrived on shortest path between node
and source
 spanning tree:
 no redundant packets received by any node

Network Layer 4-138
A
B
G
D
E
c
F
A
B
G
D
E
c
F
(a) broadcast initiated at A (b) broadcast initiated at D
Spanning tree
 first construct a spanning tree
 nodes then forward/make copies only along
spanning tree

Network Layer 4-139
A
B
G
D
E
c
F
1
2
3
4
5
(a) stepwise construction of
spanning tree (center: E)
A
B
G
D
E
c
F
(b) constructed spanning
tree
Spanning tree: creation
 center node
 each node sends unicast join message to
center node
 message forwarded until it arrives at a node
already belonging to spanning tree

Network Layer 4-140
Multicast routing: problem statement
goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers
having local mcast group members
 tree: not all paths between routers used
 shared-tree: same tree used by all group members
shared tree source-based trees
group
member
not group
member
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member
legend
 source-based: different tree from each sender to
rcvrs

Network Layer 4-141
Approaches for building mcast
trees
approaches:
 source-based tree: one tree per source
 shortest path trees
 reverse path forwarding
 group-shared tree: group uses one tree
 minimal spanning (Steiner)
 center-based trees
…we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols
adopting these approaches

Network Layer 4-142
Shortest path tree
 mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path
routes from source to all receivers
 Dijkstra’s algorithm
i
router with attached
group member
router with no attached
group member
link used for forwarding,
i indicates order link
added by algorithm
LEGEND
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6 R7
2
1
6
3 4
5
s: source

Network Layer 4-143
Reverse path forwarding
if (mcast datagram received on incoming link on
shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram
 rely on router’s knowledge of unicast shortest
path from it to sender
 each router has simple forwarding behavior:

Network Layer 4-144
Reverse path forwarding:
example
 result is a source-specific reverse SPT
 may be a bad choice with asymmetric links
group member
group member
datagram will be forwarded
LEGEND
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6 R7
s: source
datagram will not be
forwarded

Network Layer 4-145
Reverse path forwarding:
pruning
 forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast group
members
 no need to forward datagrams down subtree
 “prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
group member
group member
prune message
LEGEND
links with multicast
forwarding
P
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
s: source
P
P

Network Layer 4-146
Shared-tree: steiner tree
 steiner tree: minimum cost tree connecting
all routers with attached group members
 problem is NP-complete
 excellent heuristics exists
 not used in practice:
 computational complexity
 information about entire network needed
 monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave

Network Layer 4-147
Center-based trees
 single delivery tree shared by all
 one router identified as “center” of tree
 to join:
 edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to
center router
 join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center
 join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this
center, or arrives at center
 path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router

Network Layer 4-148
Center-based trees: example
suppose R6 chosen as center:
group member
group member
path order in which join
messages generated
LEGEND
2
1
3
1
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7

Network Layer 4-149
Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP
 DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing
protocol, RFC1075
 flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
 RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
 no assumptions about underlying unicast
 initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
 routers not wanting group: send upstream prune
msgs

Network Layer 4-150
DVMRP: continued…
 soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)
“forgets” branches are pruned:
 mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
 downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
 routers can quickly regraft to tree
 following IGMP join at leaf
 odds and ends
 commonly implemented in commercial router

Network Layer 4-151
Tunneling
Q: how to connect “islands” of multicast routers
in a “sea” of unicast routers?
 mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal” (non-
multicast-addressed) datagram
 normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP
unicast to receiving mcast router (recall IPv6 inside
IPv4 tunneling)
 receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast
datagram
physical topology logical topology

Network Layer 4-152
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
 not dependent on any specific underlying
unicast routing algorithm (works with all)
 two different multicast distribution scenarios :
dense:
 group members
densely packed, in
“close” proximity.
 bandwidth more
plentiful
sparse:
 # networks with group
members small wrt #
interconnected networks
 group members “widely
dispersed”
 bandwidth not plentiful

Network Layer 4-153
Consequences of sparse-dense
dichotomy:
dense
 group membership by
routers assumed until
routers explicitly prune
 data-driven construction
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF)
 bandwidth and non-
group-router processing
profligate
sparse:
 no membership until
routers explicitly join
 receiver- driven
construction of mcast tree
(e.g., center-based)
 bandwidth and non-group-
router processing
conservative

Network Layer 4-154
PIM- dense mode
flood-and-prune RPF: similar to DVMRP
but…
 underlying unicast protocol provides RPF
info for incoming datagram
 less complicated (less efficient)
downstream flood than DVMRP reduces
reliance on underlying routing algorithm
 has protocol mechanism for router to
detect it is a leaf-node router

Network Layer 4-155
PIM - sparse
mode
 center-based approach
 router sends join msg to
rendezvous point (RP)
 intermediate routers
update state and
forward join
 after joining via RP,
router can switch to
source-specific tree
 increased
performance: less
concentration,
shorter paths
all data multicast
from rendezvous
point
rendezvous
point
join
join
join
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7

Network Layer 4-156
sender(s):
 unicast data to RP,
which distributes
down RP-rooted
tree
 RP can extend
mcast tree upstream
to source
 RP can send stop
msg if no attached
receivers
 “no one is listening!”
all data multicast
from rendezvous
point
rendezvous
point
join
join
join
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
PIM - sparse
mode

Network Layer 4-157
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
 datagram format, IPv4
addressing, ICMP, IPv6
 link state, distance
vector, hierarchical
routing
 RIP, OSPF, BGP
4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
Chapter 4: done!
 understand principles behind network layer services:
 network layer service models, forwarding versus
routing how a router works, routing (path selection),
broadcast, multicast
 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Computer Networking network layer chapter 4

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