Networking tutorials introduction to networking

Networking Tutorials -
Introduction to Networking
Vinod Jadhav

There are a variety of physical and logical network layouts
in use today. As a network administrator, you might find
yourself working on these different network layouts or
topologies and, as such, will require knowledge of how
they are designed to function.
This tutorial reviews general network considerations such
as the various topologies used on today's networks, LANs,
PANs, and WANs, and the IEEE standards.
LANs, WANs, and PANs
Networks are classified according to their geographical
coverage and size. The two most common network
classifications are local area networks (LANs) and wide area
networks

LANs
A LAN is a data network that is restricted to a single geographical location and typically
encompasses a relatively small area such as an office building or school. The function of
the LAN is to interconnect workstation computers for the purposes of sharing files and
resources. Because of its localized nature, the LAN is typically high speed and cheaper to
set up than a WAN. Figure 1.1 shows an example of a LAN.
Local area network

WANs
A WAN is a network that spans more than one geographical location often connecting
separated LANs. WANs are slower than LANs and often require additional and costly
hardware such as routers, dedicated leased lines, and complicated implementation
procedures. Figure 2 shows an example of a WAN

PANs
Wireless technologies have introduced a new term Wireless Personal Area Networks
(WPAN). WPAN refers to the technologies involved in connecting devices in very close
proximity to exchange data or resources. An example of this can be seen through
connecting a laptop with a PDA to synchronize an address book. Because of their small
size and the nature of the data exchange, WPAN devices lend themselves well to ad hoc
networking. Ad hoc networks are those that have devices connect directly to each other
and not through a wireless access point. Ad hoc wireless networks are discussed later in
this chapter.
Because of the close proximity of WPAN networking, short-range wireless technologies
are typically used. This includes Bluetooth and Infrared. The key WPAN technology
supported in Windows XP Professional, for example, is Infrared Data Association (IrDA).
In addition, the IEEE wireless standards, including 802.11b/g, can be used to create a
WPAN.

Network Models
There are two basic wired network models from which to choosethe peer-to-peer
network model and the client/server model. The model used for a network is
determined by several factors, including how the network will be used, how many users
will be on the network, and budgetary considerations.

Peer-to-peer Networking
A peer-to-peer network is a decentralized network model offering no centralized
storage of data or centralized control over the sharing of files or resources. All systems
on a peer-to-peer network can share the resources on their local computer as well as
use resources of other systems.
Peer-to-peer networks are cheaper and easier to implement than client/server
networks, making them an ideal solution for environments in which budgets are a
concern. The peer-to-peer model does not work well with large numbers of computer
systems. As a peer-to-peer network grows, it becomes increasingly complicated to
navigate and access files and resources connected to each computer because they are
distributed throughout the network. Further, the lack of centralized data storage makes
it difficult to locate and back up key files.
Peer-to-peer networks are typically found in small offices or in residential settings
where only a limited number of computers will be attached and only a few files and
resources shared. A general rule of thumb is to have no more than 10 computers
connected to a peer-to-peer network.

Client/Server Networking Model
The client/server networking model is, without question, the most widely implemented
model and the one you are most likely to encounter when working in real-world
environments. The advantages of the client/server system stem from the fact that it is a
centralized model. It allows for centralized network management of all network services,
including user management, security, and backup procedures.
A client/server network often requires technically skilled personnel to implement and
manage the network. This and the cost of a dedicated server hardware and software
increase the cost of the client/server model. Despite this, the advantages of the
centralized management, data storage, administration, and security make it the network
model of choice. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the peer-to-peer and
client/server network models.

Table 1 Comparison of Networking Models
Attribute Peer-to-Peer Network Client/Server Network
Size Restricted to a maximum of 10 computers. The size of the network is limited only by
server size and network hardware, and it
can have thousands of connected systems.
Administration Each individual is responsible for the
administration of his or her own system. A
administrator is not needed.
A skilled network administrator is often
required to maintain and manage the
network.
Security Each individual is responsible for
maintaining security for shared files or
resources connected to the system.
Security is managed from a central
location but often requires a skilled
administrator to cSorrectly configure.
Cost Minimal startup and implementation cost. Requires dedicated equipment and
specialized hardware and administration,
increasing the cost of the network.
Implementation Easy to configure and set up. Often requires complex setup procedures
and skilled staff to set up.

Centralized and Distributed Computing
The terms centralized and distributed computing are used to describe where the
network processing takes place. In a centralized computing model, one system provides
both the data storage and the processing power for client systems. This networking
model is most often associated with computer mainframes and dumb terminals, where
no processing or storage capability exists at the workstation. These network
environments are rare, but they do still exist.
A distributed network model has the processing power distributed between the client
systems and the server. Most modern networks use the distributed network model,
where client workstations share in the processing responsibilities

Network Topologies
A topology refers to both the physical and logical layout of a network. The physical
topology of a network refers to the actual layout of the computer cables and other
network devices. The logical topology of a network, on the other hand, refers to
the way in which the network appears to the devices that use it.
Several topologies are in use for networks today. Some of the more common
include the bus, ring, star, mesh, and wireless topologies. The following sections
provide an overview of each.

Bus Topology
A bus network uses a trunk or backbone to which all of the computers on the network
connect. Systems connect to this backbone using T connectors or taps. To avoid signal
reflection, a physical bus topology requires that each end of the physical bus be
terminated. Figure 3 shows an example of a physical bus topology.
Figure 3 Physical bus topology.

Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Bus Topology
Advantages Disadvantages
Compared to other topologies, a bus is cheap and easy to
implement.
There might be network disruption when computers are added
or removed.
Requires less cable than other topologies. Because all systems on the network connect to a single
backbone, a break in the cable will prevent all systems from
accessing the network.
Does not use any specialized network equipment. Difficult to troubleshoot.
The most common implementation of a linear bus is the IEEE 802.3
standard. Table 2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the bus
topology.

Ring Topology
The ring topology is actually a logical ring, meaning that the data travels in circular
fashion from one computer to another on the network. It is not a physical ring topology.
Figure 4 shows the logical layout of a ring network.
Figure 4 Logical design of the ring network.

Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ring Topology
Cable faults are easily located, making troubleshooting easier. Expansion to the network can cause network disruption.
Ring networks are moderately easy to install. A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.
In a true ring topology, if a single computer or section of cable fails, there is an interruption in
the signal. The entire network becomes inaccessible. Network disruption can also occur when
computers are added or removed from the network, making it an impractical network design in
environments where there is constant change to the network.
Ring networks are most commonly wired in a star configuration. In a Token Ring network, a
multistation access unit (MSAU) is equivalent to a hub or switch on an Ethernet network. The
MSAU performs the token circulation internally. To create the complete ring, the ring in (RI)
port on each MSAU is connected to the ring out (RO) port on another MSAU. The last MSAU in
the ring is then connected to the first, to complete the ring. Table 3 summarizes the advantages
and disadvantages of the ring topology.

Star Topology
In the star topology, all computers and other network devices connect to a central device
called a hub or switch. Each connected device requires a single cable to be connected to
the hub, creating a point-to-point connection between the device and the hub.
Using a separate cable to connect to the hub allows the network to be expanded without
disruption to the network. A break in any single cable will not cause the entire network to
fail. Figure 1.5 provides an example of a star topology.
Figure 1.5. Star topology

The star topology is the most widely implemented network design in use today, but it is
not without its shortcomings. Because all devices connect to a centralized hub, this
creates a single point of failure for the network. If the hub fails, any device connected to
it will not be able to access the network. Because of the number of cables required and
the need for network devices, the cost of a star network is often higher than other
topologies. Table 1.4 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the star topology.
Table 1.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Star Topology
Star networks are easily expanded without disruption to the
network.
Requires more cable than most of the other topologies.
Cable failure affects only a single user. A central connecting device allows for a single point of failure.
Easy to troubleshoot and isolate problems. More difficult than other topologies to implement.

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer on the
network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection between every
device on the network. The purpose of the mesh design is to provide a high level of
redundancy. If one network cable fails, the data always has an alternative path to get to
its destination. Figure 6 shows the mesh topology.
Figure 6. Mesh topology.

As you can see from Figure 6, the wiring for a mesh network can be very complicated.
Further, the cabling costs associated with the mesh topology can be high, and
troubleshooting a failed cable can be tricky. Because of this, the mesh topology is rarely
used. A variation on a true mesh topology is the hybrid mesh. It creates a redundant
point-to-point network connection between only specific network devices. The hybrid
mesh is most often seen in WAN implementations. Table 5 summarizes the advantages
and disadvantages of the mesh topology.
Table 5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Mesh Topology
Provides redundant paths between devices Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies.
The network can be expanded without disruption to current
users.
Complicated implementation.

Wireless Topology
Wireless networks are typically implemented using one of two wireless topologies: the
infrastructure, or managed, wireless topology and the ad-hoc, or unmanaged, wireless
topology.
Infrastructure Wireless Topology
The infrastructure wireless topology is commonly used to extend a wired LAN to include
wireless devices. Wireless devices communicate with the wired LAN through a base
station known as an access point (AP) or wireless access point (WAP).
The AP forms a bridge between a wireless and wired LAN, and all transmissions between
wireless stations, or between a system and a wired network client, go through the AP.
APs are not mobile and have to stay connected to the wired network; therefore, they
become part of the wired network infrastructure thus the name. In infrastructure wireless
networks, there might be several access points providing wireless coverage for a large
area or only a single access point for a small area such as a single home or small building.

Ad Hoc Wireless Networking
In a wireless ad hoc topology, devices communicate directly between themselves without
using an access point. This peer-to-peer network design is commonly used to connect a
small number of computers or wireless devices. As an example, an ad hoc wireless
network may be set up temporarily between laptops in a boardroom or to connect to
systems in a home instead of a wired solution. The ad-hoc wireless design provides a
quick method to share files and resources between a small number of systems. Figure 7
compares the ad hoc and infrastructure wireless network designs.
Figure 7 Comparing wireless topologies.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) developed a series of
networking standards to ensure that networking technologies developed by respective
manufacturers are compatible. This means that the cabling, networking devices, and
protocols are all interchangeable when designed under the banner of a specific IEEE
standard. Table 6 summarizes the IEEE 802 networking standards.
Table 6 IEEE 802 Networking Standards
Specification Name
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 The LLC (Logical Link Control) sublayer
802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) for Ethernet networks
802.4 A token passing bus
802.5 Token Ring networks
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Group
802.8 Fiber-Optic Technical Advisory Group
802.9 Integrated Voice and Data Networks
802.10 Standards for Interoperable LAN/MAN Security (SILS) (Network
Security)
802.11 Wireless networks
802.12 100Mbps technologies, including 100BASEVG-AnyLAN

Only a few of the standards listed in Table 6 The standards that
are specifically included in the CompTIA objectives are 802.2,
802.3, 802.5, and 802.11. Each of these IEEE specifications
outlines specific characteristics for LAN networking, including the
speed, topology, cabling, and access method. The following
sections outline the key features of these IEEE specifications and
the specific characteristics of each.
802.2 IEEE Standard
The 802.2 standard, referred to as the Logical Link Control (LLC),
manages data flow control and error control for the other IEEE
LAN standards. Data flow control regulates how much data can
be transmitted in a certain amount of time. Error control refers
to the recognition and notification of damaged signals

802.3 IEEE Standard
The IEEE 802.3 standard defines the characteristics for Ethernet networks. Ethernet
networking is by far the most widely implemented form of local area networking.
Several Ethernet LAN characteristics are identified in the 802.3 standard.
Since the development of the original 802.3 standards, there have also been several
additions that have been assigned new designators. These standards are often
referred to as the 802.3x standards. Some of the newer standards include 802.3u for
Fast Ethernet, 802.3z for Gigabit Ethernet, and 802.3ae for 10-Gigabit Ethernet. The
features for 802.3 are listed here:
1) Speed The original IEEE 802.3 standard specified a network transfer rate of 10Mbps.
There have been modifications to the standard, the result being Fast Ethernet (802.3u),
which can transmit network data up to 100Mbps and higher, as well as Gigabit Ethernet
(802.3z), which can transmit at speeds up to 1000Mbps. 802.3ae is a very fast 803.3
standard. Known as 10-Gigabit Ethernet, it offers speeds 10 times that of Gigabit
Ethernet.

2 )Topology The original Ethernet networks used a bus or star topology because the
original 802.3 standard included specifications for both twisted pair and coaxial cabling.
The IEEE 802.3u and 802.3z specify twisted pair cabling and use a star topology.
Remember that even when Ethernet uses a physical star topology, it uses a logical bus
topology.
3) Media The media refers to the physical cabling used to transmit the signal around the
network. The original 802.3 specifications identified coaxial and twisted pair cabling to be
used. The more modern standards specify twisted pair and fiber-optic cable. 802.3ae
currently only supports fiber media.
4 ) Access method The access method refers to the way that the network media is
accessed. Ethernet networks use a system called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). CSMA/CD works by monitoring the computers that are
sending data on the network. If two computers transmit data at the same time, a data
collision will occur. To prevent collisions, the systems sending the data will be required to
wait a period of time and then retransmit the data to avoid the collision. 10-Gigbit
Ethernet only operates in full-duplex mode and, as such, does not need to use the
traditional Ethernet CSMA/CD access method

802.5 IEEE Standard
The IEEE 802.5 standard specifies the characteristics for Token Ring networks. Token Ring
was introduced by IBM in the mid-1980s and quickly became the network topology of
choice until the rise in popularity of Ethernet. It is unlikely that you will encounter a ring
network in your travels and even more unlikely that you will be implementing a ring
network as a new installation. For what it's worth, Token Ring is a solid network system,
but Ethernet has all but eliminated it.
The following is a list of the specific characteristics specified in the 802.5 standard:
1) Speed The 802.5 Token Ring specifies network speeds of 4 and 16Mbps.
2) Topology Token Ring networks use a logical ring topology and most often a physical
star. The logical ring is often created in the multistation access unit (MSAU).
3) Media Token Ring networks use unshielded twisted pair cabling or shielded twisted
pair.
4) Access method 802.5 specifies an access method known as token passing. On a Token
Ring network, only one computer at a time can transmit data. When a computer has
data to send, it must use a special type of packet known as a token. The token travels
around the network looking for computers with data to send. The computer's data is
passed along with the token until it gets to the destination computerat which point, the
data is removed from the token and the empty token placed back on the ring.

FDDI
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed the Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI) standard in the mid-1980s to meet the growing need for a reliable and
fast networking system to accommodate distributed applications. FDDI uses a ring
network design, but, unlike the traditional 802.5 standard, FDDI uses a dual ring
technology for fault tolerance. Because of the dual ring design, FDDI is not susceptible to
a single cable failure like the regular 802.5 IEEE standard. Figure 1.8 shows an FDDI
network with a dual ring configuration.
Figure 1.8. FDDI network.

As with any of the other standards, FDDI has specific characteristics:
Speed FDDI transmits data at 100Mbps and higher.
Topology FDDI uses a dual ring topology for fault-tolerant reasons.
Media FDDI uses fiber-optic cable that enables data transmissions that exceed two
kilometers. Additionally, it is possible to use FDDI protocols over copper wire known as
the Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI).
Access method Similar to 802.5, FDDI uses a token-passing access method.
Table 1.7 summarizes each of the wired standards discussed in the previous sections.
Table 1.7. IEEE 802 Network Standards
Standard Speed Physical Topology Logical Topology Media Access Method
802.3 10Mbps Bus and Star Coaxial and twisted
pair
CSMA/CD

Table 1.7. IEEE 802 Network Standards
Standard Speed Physical Topology Logical Topology Media Access Method
802.3 10Mbps Bus and Star Coaxial and twisted
pair
CSMA/CD
802.3u 100Mbps (Fast
Ethernet)
Star Bus Twisted pair CSMA/CD
802.3z 1000Mbps Star Bus Twisted pair CSMA/CD
802.3ae 10-Gigabit Backbone
connections
N/A Fiber/Not Required
802.5 4Mbps and 16Mbps Star Ring Twisted pair Token passing
FDDI 100Mbps Dual ring Ring Fiber-optic Twisted
pair (CDDI).
Token passing

802.11 IEEE Standards
The 802.11 standards specify the characteristics of wireless LAN Ethernet networks.
Under the banner of 802.11, there are four common wireless standards. These
include 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g. Each of these wireless standards
identifies several characteristics. Here is a review of the 802.11 wireless standards
and characteristics
1) Speed 802.11 standards are measured in Mbps and vary between network standards.
2) Media The 802.11 standards use radio frequency (RF) as a transmission media.
Depending on the standard, radio frequencies include 2.4GHz and 5GHz.
3) Topology 802.11 wireless standards can be implemented in an ad-hoc or infrastructure
topology.
4) Access method 802.11 uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA). CSMA/CA is a variation on the CSMA/CD access method. CSMA/CA access
method uses a "listen before talking" strategy. Any system wanting to transmit data must
first verify that the channel is clear before transmitting, thereby avoiding potential
collisions.
5) Spread Spectrum Spread spectrum refers to the manner in which data signals travel
through a radio frequency. Spread spectrum requires that data signals either alternate
between carrier frequencies or constantly change their data pattern. Spread spectrum is
designed to trade off bandwidth efficiency for reliability, integrity, and security.
6) Range 802.11 wireless standards each specify a transmission range. The range is
influenced by many factors such as obstacles or weather.

The following is a look at the various 802.11 standards and their characteristics.
IEEE 802.11 There were actually two variations on the initial 802.11
standard. Both offered 1 or 2Mbps transmission speeds and the
same Radio Frequency (RF) of 2.4GHz. The difference between the
two was in the way in which data traveled through the RF media.
One used frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), and the other,
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
IEEE 802.11a In terms of speed, the 802.11a standard was far
ahead of the original standards. 802.11a specified speeds of up to
54Mbps in the 5GHz band; but most commonly, communications
takes place at 6Mbps, 12Mbps, or 24Mbps. 802.11a is not
compatible with other wireless standards 802.11b and 802.11g.
These standards are heavily favored to the 802.11a standard.

IEEE 802.11g 802.11g is a popular wireless standard today.
802.11g offers wireless transmission over distances of 150 feet
and speeds up to 54Mbps compared with the 11 megabits per
second of the 802.11b standard. Like 802.11b, 802.11g
operates in the 2.4GHz range, and is thus compatible with it.
IEEE 802.11b The 802.11b standard provides for a maximum
transmission speed of 11Mbps. However, devices are designed
to be backward compatible with previous standards that
provided for speeds of 1-, 2-, and 5.5Mbps. 802.11b uses a
2.4GHz RF range and is compatible with 802.11g.

Infrared Wireless Networking
Infrared has been around for a long time; perhaps our first
experience with it was the TV remote. The command entered
onto the remote control travels over an infrared light wave to the
receiver on the TV. Infrared technology has progressed, and today
infrared development in networking is managed by the Infrared
Data Association (IrDA).
IrDA wireless networking uses infrared beams to send data
transmissions between devices. Infrared wireless networking
offers higher transmission rates reaching 10Mbps to 16Mbps.
Infrared provides a secure, low-cost, convenient cable
replacement technology. It is well suited for many specific
applications and environments. Some of the key infrared points
are included here:

1) Infrared provides adequate speeds, up to 16Mbps.
2) A directed infrared system provides a very limited range of
approximately 3 feet and typically is used for a PAN.
3) Infrared devices use less power and a decreased drain on
batteries.
4) Infrared is a secure medium. Infrared signals typically travel short
range between devices, which eliminates the problem of
eavesdropping or signal tampering.
5) Infrared is a proven technology. Infrared devices have been
available for quite some time and, as such, are a proven, non-
proprietary technology with an established user and support base.
6) Infrared has no radio frequency interference issues or signal
conflicts.
7) Infrared replaces cables for many devices such as keyboards,
mice, and other peripherals.
8) Infrared uses a dispersed mode or a direct line of sight
transmission.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless standard used for many purposes including connecting
peripheral devices to a system. Bluetooth uses a low-cost, short-range radio link to
create a link to replace many of the cords that used to connect devices.
Bluetooth-enabled devices support transmissions distances of up to 10 or so meters
using an ad-hoc network design. Bluetooth establishes the link using an RF-based
media and does not require a direct line of sight to make a connection. The Bluetooth
Standard defines a short RF link capable of voice or data transmission up to a
maximum capacity of 720Kb/s per channel.
Bluetooth operates at 2.4 to 2.48GHz and uses a spread spectrum, frequency-hopping
technology. The signal hops can hop between 79 frequencies at 1MHz intervals to give
a high degree of interference immunity.
As an established technology, Bluetooth has many advantages, but the speed of
720Kbps is limiting. The newest version of Bluetooth, Bluetooth 2.0, will increase
overall speed to a data rate of 3Mbps. This speed might still be significantly slower
than 802.11b or g, but for an easily configured, cable replacement technology, it is an
attractive option.

Spread Spectrum Technology
Spread spectrum refers to the manner in which data signals travel through a
radio frequency. Spread spectrum requires that data signals either alternate
between carrier frequencies or constantly change their data pattern. Although
the shortest distance between two points is a straight line (narrowband),
spread spectrum is designed to trade-off bandwidth efficiency for reliability,
integrity, and security. There are two types of spread spectrum radio: frequency
hopping and direct sequence.
FHSS requires the use of narrowband signals that change frequencies in a
predictable pattern. The term frequency hopping refers to hopping of data
signals between narrow channels. Somewhere between 20 and several hundred
milliseconds, the signal hops to a new channel following a predetermined cyclic
pattern.

Because data signals using FHSS switch between RF bands,
they have a strong resistance to interference and
environmental factors. The constant hopping between
channels also increases security as signals are harder to
eavesdrop on.
DSSS transmissions spread the signal over a full transmission
frequency spectrum. For every bit of data that is sent, a
redundant bit pattern is also sent. This 32-bit pattern is called a
chip. These redundant bits of data provide for both security
and delivery assurance. Transmissions are so safe and reliable
simply because the system sends so many redundant copies of
the data and only a single copy is required to have complete
transmission of the data or information. DSSS can minimize the
effects of interference and background noise.

FHSS, DSSS, and 802.11 Standards
The original 802.11 standard had two variationsboth offering
the same speeds but differing in the RF spread spectrum used.
One of the 802.11 used FHSS. This 802.11 variant used the
2.4GHz radio frequency band and operated with a 1 or 2Mbps
data rate. Since this original standard, wireless
implementations have favored DSSS.
The second 802.11 variation used DSSS and specified a 2Mbps-
peak data rate with optional fallback to 1Mbps in very noisy
environments. 802.11, 802.11b, and 802.11g use the DSSS
spread spectrum. This means that the underlying modulation
scheme is very similar between each standard, enabling all
DSSS systems to coexist with 2, 11, and 54Mbps 802.11
standards. Because of the underlying differences between
802.11a and the 802.11b/g, they are not compatible.
.

Table 8 summarizes each of the wired standards discussed in the previous
sections
Table 8 IEEE 802 Wireless Network Standards
IEEE Standard Frequency/Media Speed Topology Transmission Range Access Method Spread Spectrum
802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2Mbps Ad-hoc/infra-structure CSMA/CA DSSS
802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2Mbps Ad-hoc/infra-structure CSMA/CA FHSS
802.11a 5GHz Up to 54Mbps Ad-hoc/infra-structure 25 to 75 feet indoors
range can be affected by
building materials
CSMA/CA OFDM
802.11b 2.4GHz Up to 11Mbps Ad-hoc/infra-structure Up to 150 feet indoors;
building materials
CSMA/CA DSSS
802.11g 2.4GHz Up to 54Mbps Ad-hoc/infra-structure Up to 150 feet indoors;
building materials
CSMA/CA DSSS
IrDA Infrared light beam Up to 16Mbps Ad-hoc 1 meter N/A N/A
Bluetooth 2.4GHz RF 720Kbps Ad-hoc 10 meters N/A FHSS

Establishing Communications Between Wireless Devices
Infrastructure Wireless communication involves the use of two major componentsthe
client device and an access point, or AP. The AP acts as a bridge between the client or
station and the wired network.
As with other forms of network communication, before transmissions between devices
can occur, the wireless access point and the client must first begin to talk to each other.
In the wireless world, this is a two-step process involving association and authentication.
The association process occurs when a wireless adapter is first turned on. The client
adapter will immediately begin to scan across the wireless frequencies for wireless APs or
if using ad hoc mode, other wireless devices. When the wireless client is configured to
operate in infrastructure mode, the user can choose a wireless AP with which to connect.
The wireless adapter switches to the assigned channel of the selected wireless AP and
negotiates the use of a port.
The authentication process requires that a keyed security measure be negotiated between
the AP and the client. The keyed authentication setting can be set to either shared key
authentication or open authentication. On many wireless devices, the default setting is set
to open authentication. Open authentication requires identity verification between the
wireless client and the AP. When set to shared key mode, the client must meet security
requirements before communication with the AP can occur.
Several components combine to enable wireless communications between devices. Each
of these must be configured on both the client and the AP.

1) The Service Set Identifier (SSID) Whether your wireless network is using infrastructure
mode or ad-hoc mode, an SSID is required. The SSID is a configurable client identification
that allows clients to communicate to a particular base station. Only clients systems that
are configured with the same SSID as the AP can communicate with it. SSIDs provide a
simple password arrangement between base stations and clients.
2) Wireless Channel RF channels are important parts of wireless communications. A
channel refers to the band of frequency used for the wireless communication. Each
standard specifies the channels that can be used. The 802.11a standard specifies radio
frequencies ranges between 5.15 and 5.875GHz. In contrast, 802.11b and 802.11g
standards operate between the 2.4 to 2.497GHz ranges. Fourteen channels are defined
in the IEEE 802.11b/g channel set; 11 of which are available in North America.
3) Security Features IEEE 802.11 provides for security using two methods, authentication
and encryption. Authentication refers to the verification of client system. In the
infrastructure mode, authentication is established between an AP and each station.
Wireless encryption services must be the same on the client and the AP for
communication to occur.

Factors Affecting Wireless Signals
Because wireless signals travel through the atmosphere, they are susceptible to different
types of interference than with standard wires networks. Interference weakens wireless
signals and is therefore an important consideration when working with wireless
networking.
Interference Types
Wireless interference is an important consideration when planning a wireless network.
Interference is unfortunately inevitable, but the trick is to minimize the levels of
interference. Wireless LAN communications are typically based on radio frequency signals
that require a clear and unobstructed transmission path

What are some of the factors that cause interference?
1) Physical objects Trees, masonry, buildings, and other physical structures are some of
the most common sources of interference. The density of the materials used in a
building's construction determines the number of walls the RF signal can pass through
and still maintain adequate coverage. Concrete and steel walls are particularly difficult
for a signal to pass through. These structures will weaken or, at times, completely
prevent wireless signals.
2) Radio frequency interference Wireless technologies such as 802.11b/g use RF range of
2.4GHz, and so do many other devices such as cordless phones, microwaves, and so on.
Devices that share the channel can cause noise and weaken the signals.
3) Electrical interference Electrical interference comes from devices such as computers,
fridges, fans, lighting fixtures, or any other motorized devices. The impact that electrical
interference has on the signal depends on the proximity of the electrical device to the
wireless access point. Advances in wireless technologies and in electrical devices have
reduced the impact these types of devices have on wireless transmissions.
4) Environmental factors Weather conditions can have a huge impact on wireless signal
integrity. Lighting, for instance, can cause electrical interference, and fog can weaken
signals as they pass through.

Some of the equipment and materials that can interfere with wireless LAN
transmissions include
1 ) Equipment such as cordless phones or microwaves that produce radio waves in
the 2.4 or 5.2GHz range
2) RF noise caused by two wireless LANs operating in close proximity
Outdoor broadcast television used by mobile television cameras
3 ) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) devices
4 ) Large objects such as pine trees
5) Fluorescent lights
6) Heavy machinery
7) Heavy-duty motors found in elevators or other large devices
8) Plants and trees
9) Close proximity to smaller electric devices such as computers or air conditioners
Transformers
This is not an exhaustive list, but it shows how wireless signals can be influenced by
many different factors.

Wireless Antennas
A wireless antenna is an integral part of the overall wireless communication. Antennas
come in many different shapes and sizes with each one designed for a specific
purpose. Selecting the right antenna for a particular network implementation is a
critical consideration and one that could ultimately decide how successful a wireless
implementation will be. In addition, using the right antennas can save money as
networking costs because you'll need fewer antennas and access points.
When a wireless signal is low and being influenced by heavy interference, it might be
possible to upgrade the antennas to create a more solid wireless connection. To
determine the strength of an antenna, we refer to its gain value.
An antenna's gain is a measure of how well the antenna will send or pick up a radio
signal. The gain value is measured in decibels-isotropic, or dBi. The gain value of an
antenna is a unit of comparison to a referencethat reference being an isotropic
antenna. An isotropic antenna is an antenna that sends signals equally in all directions
(including up and down). An antenna that does this has a 0dBi gain.

An antenna's rating (gain) is the difference between the 0db isotropic antenna and the
actual antenna rating. As an example, a wireless antenna advertised as a 15-dBi
antenna is 15 times stronger than the hypothetical isotropic antenna.
The initials "dB" reference decibels, and the "i" references the isotropic antenna. dBi is
a unit measuring how much better the antenna is compared to isotropic signals.
When looking at wireless antennas, remember that a higher gain rating means
stronger sent and received signals. In terms of performance, the rule of thumb is that
every 3dBi of gain added doubles the effective power output of an antenna.

Antenna Coverage
When selecting an antenna for a particular wireless implementation, it is necessary to
determine the type of coverage used by an antenna. In a typical configuration, a
wireless antenna can be either omni directional or directional.
An omni directional antenna is designed to provide a 360-degree dispersed wave
pattern. This type of antenna is used when coverage in all directions from the antenna
is required. Omni directional antennas are good to use when a broad-based signal is
required. Because of the dispersed nature of omni directional antennas, the signal is
weaker overall and therefore accommodates shorter signal distances. Omni directional
antennas are great in an environment in which there is a clear line of path between
the senders and receivers. The power is evenly spread to all points, making omni
directional antennas well suited for linking several home and small office users.
Directional antennas are designed to focus the signal in a particular direction. This
focused signal allows for greater distances and a stronger signal between two points.
The greater distances enabled by directional antennas allow a viable alternative for
connecting locations, such as two offices, in a point-to-point configuration.
Directional antennas are also used when you need to tunnel or thread a signal
through a series of obstacles. This concentrates the signal power in a specific direction
and allows you to use less power for a greater distance than an omni directional
antenna.

Networking tutorials introduction to networking

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