lectures in prolog in order to advance in artificial intelligence

Chapter 1: The Foundations:
Logic and Proofs
Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications
Lingma Acheson (linglu@iupui.edu)
Department of Computer and Information Science, IUPUI
1

1.1 Propositional Logic
A proposition is a declarative sentence (a
sentence that declares a fact) that is either
true or false, but not both.
Are the following sentences propositions?
Toronto is the capital of Canada.
Read this carefully.
1+2=3
x+1=2
What time is it?
(No)
(No)
(No)
(Yes)
(Yes)
Introduction
2

Propositional Logic – the area of logic that
deals with propositions
Propositional Variables – variables that
represent propositions: p, q, r, s
E.g. Proposition p – “Today is Friday.”
Truth values – T, F
3

 Examples
 Find the negation of the proposition “Today is Friday.” and
express this in simple English.
 Find the negation of the proposition “At least 10 inches of rain
fell today in Miami.” and express this in simple English.
DEFINITION 1
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p, is the statement
“It is not the case that p.”
The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth value of the negation of p, ¬p
is the opposite of the truth value of p.
Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that today is Friday.”
In simple English, “Today is not Friday.” or “It is not
Friday today.”
Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that at least 10 inches
of rain fell today in Miami.”
In simple English, “Less than 10 inches of rain fell today
in Miami.”
4

 Note: Always assume fixed times, fixed places, and particular people
unless otherwise noted.
 Truth table:
 Logical operators are used to form new propositions from two or more
existing propositions. The logical operators are also called
connectives.
The Truth Table for the
Negation of a Proposition.
p ¬p
T
F
F
T
5

 Examples
 Find the conjunction of the propositions p and q where p is the
proposition “Today is Friday.” and q is the proposition “It is
raining today.”, and the truth value of the conjunction.
DEFINITION 2
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p
Λ q, is the proposition “p and q”. The conjunction p Λ q is true when
both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
Solution: The conjunction is the proposition “Today is Friday and it
is raining today.” The proposition is true on rainy Fridays.
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 Note:
inclusive or : The disjunction is true when at least one of the two
propositions is true.
 E.g. “Students who have taken calculus or computer science can take
this class.” – those who take one or both classes.
exclusive or : The disjunction is true only when one of the
proposition is true.
 E.g. “Students who have taken calculus or computer science, but not
both, can take this class.” – only those who take one of them.
 Definition 3 uses inclusive or.
DEFINITION 3
Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ν
q, is the proposition “p or q”. The conjunction p ν q is false when both
p and q are false and is true otherwise.
7


The Truth Table for
the Conjunction of
Two Propositions.
p q p Λ q
T T
T F
F T
F F
T
F
F
F
The Truth Table for
the Disjunction of
Two Propositions.
p q p ν q
T T
T F
F T
F F
T
T
T
F
DEFINITION 4
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p q,
is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is
false otherwise.
Exclusive Or (XOR) of
Two Propositions.
p q p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
F
T
T
F


8


DEFINITION 5
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement p → q, is the
proposition “if p, then q.” The conditional statement is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise. In the conditional statement p
→ q, p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is
called the conclusion (or consequence).
Conditional Statements
 A conditional statement is also called an implication.
 Example: “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.” p → q
implication:
elected, lower taxes. T T | T
not elected, lower taxes. F T | T
not elected, not lower taxes. F F | T
elected, not lower taxes. T F | F
9

 Example:
 Let p be the statement “Maria learns discrete mathematics.” and
q the statement “Maria will find a good job.” Express the
statement p → q as a statement in English.
Solution: Any of the following -
“If Maria learns discrete mathematics, then she will find a
good job.
“Maria will find a good job when she learns discrete
mathematics.”
“For Maria to get a good job, it is sufficient for her to
learn discrete mathematics.”
“Maria will find a good job unless she does not learn
discrete mathematics.”
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 Other conditional statements:
 Converse of p → q : q → p
 Contrapositive of p → q : ¬ q → ¬ p
 Inverse of p → q : ¬ p → ¬ q
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 p ↔ q has the same truth value as (p → q) Λ (q → p)
 “if and only if” can be expressed by “iff”
 Example:
 Let p be the statement “You can take the flight” and let q be the
statement “You buy a ticket.” Then p ↔ q is the statement
“You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.”
Implication:
If you buy a ticket you can take the flight.
If you don’t buy a ticket you cannot take the flight.
DEFINITION 6
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the
proposition “p if and only if q.” The biconditional statement p ↔ q is
true when p and q have the same truth values, and is false otherwise.
Biconditional statements are also called bi-implications.
12

Biconditional p ↔ q.
p q p ↔ q
T T
T F
F T
F F
T
F
F
T
13

 We can use connectives to build up complicated compound
propositions involving any number of propositional variables, then
use truth tables to determine the truth value of these compound
propositions.
 Example: Construct the truth table of the compound proposition
(p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).
Truth Tables of Compound Propositions
The Truth Table of (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).
p q ¬q p ν ¬q p Λ q (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q)
T T
T F
F T
F F
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
F 14

 We can use parentheses to specify the order in which logical
operators in a compound proposition are to be applied.
 To reduce the number of parentheses, the precedence order is
defined for logical operators.
Precedence of Logical Operators
Precedence of Logical Operators.
Operator Precedence
¬ 1
Λ
ν
2
3
→
↔
4
5
E.g. ¬p Λ q = (¬p ) Λ q
p Λ q ν r = (p Λ q ) ν r
p ν q Λ r = p ν (q Λ r)
15

 English (and every other human language) is often ambiguous.
Translating sentences into compound statements removes the
ambiguity.
 Example: How can this English sentence be translated into a logical
expression?
“You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet
tall unless you are older than 16 years old.”
Translating English Sentences
Solution: Let q, r, and s represent “You can ride the roller coaster,”
“You are under 4 feet tall,” and “You are older than
16 years old.” The sentence can be translated into:
(r Λ ¬ s) → ¬q.
16

 Example: How can this English sentence be translated into a logical
expression?
“You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a
computer science major or you are not a freshman.”
Solution: Let a, c, and f represent “You can access the Internet from
campus,” “You are a computer science major,” and “You are
a freshman.” The sentence can be translated into:
a → (c ν ¬f).
17

 Computers represent information using bits.
 A bit is a symbol with two possible values, 0 and 1.
 By convention, 1 represents T (true) and 0 represents F (false).
 A variable is called a Boolean variable if its value is either true or
false.
 Bit operation – replace true by 1 and false by 0 in logical
operations.
Table for the Bit Operators OR, AND, and XOR.
x y x ν y x Λ y x y
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
Logic and Bit Operations

18

 Example: Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of the
bit string 01 1011 0110 and 11 0001 1101.
DEFINITION 7
A bit string is a sequence of zero or more bits. The length of this string
is the number of bits in the string.
Solution:
01 1011 0110
11 0001 1101
-------------------
11 1011 1111 bitwise OR
01 0001 0100 bitwise AND
10 1010 1011 bitwise XOR
19

1.2 Propositional Equivalences
DEFINITION 1
A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth
values of the propositions that occurs in it, is called a tautology. A
compound proposition that is always false is called a contradiction. A
compound proposition that is neither a tautology or a contradiction is
called a contingency.
Introduction
Examples of a Tautology and a Contradiction.
p ¬p p ν ¬p p Λ ¬p
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
20

DEFINITION 2
The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p ↔
q is a tautology. The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are logically
equivalent.
Logical Equivalences
Truth Tables for ¬p ν q and p → q .
p q ¬p ¬p ν q p → q
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
 Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all
possible cases are called logically equivalent.
 Example: Show that ¬p ν q and p → q are logically equivalent.
21

 In general, 2n rows are required if a compound proposition involves n
propositional variables in order to get the combination of all truth
values.
 See page 24, 25 for more logical equivalences.
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Constructing New Logical Equivalences
 Example: Show that ¬(p → q ) and p Λ ¬q are logically equivalent.
Solution:
¬(p → q ) ≡ ¬(¬p ν q) by example on slide 21
≡ ¬(¬p) Λ ¬q by the second De Morgan law
≡ p Λ ¬q by the double negation law
 Example: Show that (p Λ q) → (p ν q) is a tautology.
Solution: To show that this statement is a tautology, we will use logical
equivalences to demonstrate that it is logically equivalent to T.
(p Λ q) → (p ν q) ≡ ¬(p Λ q) ν (p ν q) by example on slide 21
≡ (¬ p ν ¬q) ν (p ν q) by the first De Morgan law
≡ (¬ p ν p) ν (¬ q ν q) by the associative and
communicative law for disjunction
≡ T ν T
≡ T
 Note: The above examples can also be done using truth tables.
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