Generation of computer processors

Generations of the computer
processors1
processors.
Piotr Gwizdała

processors2
Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation
 Dual Core processors generation
 Improves and actualizations
 Codenames of the processors

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First Generation Processors
 Due to the IBM’s choice as the assembler of
the first PCs, the Intel’s processors were
selected to be the first in use, creating what
is called now a 1st generation of processors.
 First generation processors:
– 8086 and 8088
– 80186 and 80188
– 8087 (coprocessor)

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1st Generation: 8086
 One of the first processors of 16bits and
16bit data bus. Introduced in the middle of
1978.
 Could address 1MB of memory.
 Was a little too modern for the actual market
situation. It’s cost was not adequate to
performance.

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 The Intel’s response to market conditions after not
too successful release of 8086
 Remained 16bit processor, but required only 8bit
data bus.
 Slower than 8086, but advertised widely as the same
family of 16bit processors.
 Time frame: Introduced in 1979 (1 year after 8086).
First IBM PC system using it appeared in 1981.

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1st Generation: 8088 Summary
 8088 was slower, but cheaper than 8086. It
caused IBM computers to be cheaper than
the Apple computers.
 8088 ran at 4.77MHz, taking 12 cycles to
complete each instruction.
 In reality only 640kB were available on the
8088, the rest was reserved for BIOS and
adapter cards.

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1st Generation

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1st Generation: 80186 and 80188
 Introduced by Intel in 1982
 Produced in two versions like 8086 and 8088
with 16bit and 8bit data bus respectively
 6MHz, but way better architecture provided
higher performance
 Commonly used in embedded systems and
in microcontrolers.

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1st Generation: 8087 Coprocessor
 Oriented at mathematical computing. Often
called NDP – Numeric Data Processor or
simply ‘Math chip’.
 Was improving a lot the performance of
applications requiring a lot of computing.

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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2nd Generation
 80286 introduced in 1982
 Released also 80287 coprocessor which was
identical to 8087 (with some small
compatibility changes that failed on
synchronization)
 Protected mode of execution, improved
DMA, increased speed, versions for laptop
computers.

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2nd Generation: 80286
 Some of advantages
– 24bit address bus, allowing to address 16MB of
memory.
– First ones worked with 6MHz to reach later up to
25MHz
– Did not require cooling fan
– Just 4.5 cycles average per instruction

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 Disadvantages
– Couldn’t switch back from protected mode to real
mode.
– Addressing was not used, as at the moment
hardly any PC had more than 1MB of memory
– Didn’t cooperate well with math coprocessor (or
vice-versa)
 Due to that was mainly used in embedded
systems.

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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3rd Generation
 All 386 had internal 32bit registers
– 386DX – the first introduced by Intel
– 386SX – cheaper version of DX with 24bit
memory addressing (up to 16MB rather than
4GB)
– 386SL – laptop version of 386
– 80386 Coprocessor – without synchronization
issues – worked with the same clock speed.

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3rd Generation: 386DX
 Working protected and virtual mode – allowing to do
much more than on processors of earlier
generations, like addressing up to 64TB of virtual
memory.
 Working with speed of 16-33MHz, offering the same
execution efficiency as 286, plus the new
programming possibilities.
 Memory Management Unit (segmentation)
 Very expensive and still being one step too forward.

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3rd Generation: 386SX
 Introduced because of market situation
(competition with AMD and Cyrix cheap
units)
 24bit address bus made them much cheaper
 Processor of 3rd generation, but with
performance very similar to ones of 2nd. The
advantage was compatibility.

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3rd Generation: 386SL
 Lower power consumption aiming at usage in
laptop systems.
 Possibility of implementing power
management through System Management
Interrupt

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3rd Generation: 386

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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4th Generation
 After revolutionary ideas realized in the 3rd
generation, the 4th generation focused on
optimizing the performance improving what
was already invented.
 The great increase in performance made
working with GUI a real option. Windows
increased it’s sales dramatically.

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4th Generation: Secret of 486
 It was the first fully pipelined processor
– Fetching, decoding, execution, memory access
and writing back the results were happening
simultaneously but for different instructions.

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4th Generation: More secrets of 486
 Every two clock cycles the instruction
execution was being finished.
 Level 1 cache with 90-95% hit ratio.
 In some versions built-in math coprocessor
 Clock speed ranging from 16MHz to
133MHz, but processors could work with any
lower speed than the maximum one given.

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4th Generation: 486DX
 First introduced in 1989.
 Fully compatible with the earlier generations
 Built-in math coprocessor
 8kB cache

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4th Generation:486DX2
 Nearly identical to 486DX
 Had the clock multiplayer circuit – the first chip that
used clock doubling. It allowed the processor to run
twice faster than external bus. The 8kB cache was
shadowing the slower system bus.
 Was one of the best choices at the moment. With
16MB of RAM could be used with success for
several years.
 486DX3 was never released, but 486DX4 was
released multiplying bus speed by 3 (not 4).

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4th Generation: Other 486 by Intel
 There were many variations of 486 by Intel: i486DX ,
i486SL , i486DXL, i486SX (P23) , i486DX2 (P24),
i486DX-S (P4S) , i486DX2-S (P24S), i486SX-S
(P23S) , i486SXL, i486SX2, IntelDX4WB,
i486DX2WB, i486DX2, 80486DX4, …
 The main differences were the clock speed, the
voltage and power management features, the size of
cache and cache strategy, the clock speed
multiplayer (DX2 and DX4)

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4th Generation: Overdrive processors
 There were produced processors in the
version called OverDrive
 486 OverDrive was a category of processors
to upgrade existing 486 systems. They could
run on the same FSB, but with greater
internal speed, also providing some
additional instructions, bigger and better
organized cache etc.

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4th Generation: Overdrive processors
 Pentium OverDrive is processor that lays
between 5th and 4th generation. It was a
Pentium processor working in the systems
where 486 used to work. Overall
performance was way smaller than the one
of the real Pentium processors and even of
the 486DX4.

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4th Generation: AMD processors
 At this point the other companies became a
real competition for Intel
 AMD’s 486 compatible processor named
5x86 was multiplying the system’s bus
working at speed of 33MHz by 4 resulting in
speed of 133MHz. It had built-in cache of
16kB supporting write-back strategy.
 It was considered to be the fastest processor
of the generation.

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4th Generation: Cyrix processors
 Were compatible and similar to all other
processors of the generation (including
codes and names causing confusions)
 Were less efficient, but one of the cheapest.

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4th Generation

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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5th Generation
 Intel willing to protect it’s processors names
quit the number convention and instead of
586 called his new processor Pentium
released in 1992.
 First Complex Instruction Set Computer
(CISC) implementing superscalar
technology.

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5th Generation: Superscalar
 The first Pentium processor contained two pipelines
called U and V.
 The pipeline U could execute any instruction. V
could execute only the most basic ones.
 Behaved like two 486 processors sharing registers
and bus, executing the same program.
 Every cycle was executed about one instruction. But
at around 20-30% of time there were executed two
instructions at the same time.
 Further optimizing could increase that rate.

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5th Generation new concepts
 64bit data bus increased data exchange with RAM.
The registers were still 32bits.
 Later improved with multimedia instructions (MMX)
 Dividing the cache into cache of data and
instructions.
 Branch prediction mechanisms to cache instructions
better.
 Multiprocessor machines support.
 Remade, faster FPU… but with bugs.

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5th Generation Intel models
 The first models codenamed P5 and P54C
were produced in technology of 0.80 and
0.60 micrometer. These early Pentium
processors were having a FPU bug.
 The bug was heavily criticized although it
was occurring in about 1 over 9 billion
divides with random numbers. The mistake
could be significant (up to 3rd significant digit)

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5th Generation Intel models
 The later Pentium models were produced in
technology of 0.35 to 0.25 micrometer.
 Their clock speed was reaching the 300MHz
in case of Pentium MMX.
 The Pentium processors in 5th generation
started to be produced in 1993 and the last
Pentium MMX was released in 1999

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5th Generation Intel models: MMX
 Pentium MMX was the first processor done in
technology of 0.25 micrometer and with special set
of Multimedia instructions.
 Developed by Intel's Research & Development
Center in Haifa, Israel.
 New 57 seven instructions operating on different
data types (e.g. 32bit integer, as well as 8bit, 16bit
and 64bit integers)
 In later versions the level 1 cache was doubled from
16kB to 32kB.

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5th Generation: AMD K5
 Compatible with Pentium.
 As a project it could be a good competition for Intel,
but AMD didn’t have that much experience in the
field. In the end the ambitious project including
speculative execution ended up with branch
prediction unit 4 times larger than one in Intel, but
having the same performance.
 The project was closer in architecture to Pentium
Pro, but it’s performance was on level of Pentium.

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AMD-K5 P-MMX, and others

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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6th Generation
 The 686 processors represent a new
generation with features not found in the
previous generation units. The 686 processor
family began when the Pentium Pro was
released in November 1995. Since then, Intel
has released many other 686 chips, all using
the same basic 686 core processor as the
Pentium Pro – released already in 1995

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6th Generation secrets:
 New features
– Dividing the CISC instructions into RISC
instructions (microinstructions)
– Executing them multiple execution units. Parallel
and out of the initial order.
– Execution speculation
– Advanced branch prediction

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6th Generation: Pentium Pro
 Introduced after negotiations with Microsoft about
their future products. Unfortunately Windows 95 was
mainly 16bit. Pentium Pro started to be sold as NT
and Unix dedicated processor.
 After all the performance was up to 35% higher for
32bit instructions. Unfortunately it was just 20%
faster in 16bit instructions, what considering it’s price
blocked it’s early entrance to the market.
 Suffered from another FPU bug  (while converting
from fpu to int)

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6th Generation: Pentium II
 Introduced in 1997, produced in technology of 0.35 /
0.25 micrometer, with clock up to 300MHz
 Contains MMX instruction set.
 Due to high heat production was placed in a slot
instead of socket.
 Contains level 2 cache outside the CPU.
 Was released in two other versions: low-end
Pentium II Celeron and high-end Pentium II Xeon
 Superseded by Pentium III

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6th Generation Pentium III
 Is similar to Pentium II but naturally works with
higher clock speed. The first processors were made
in 0.25 micrometer technology, and the last Pentium
III reached 0.13 micrometers.
 The new set of instructions called SSE – Streaming
SIMD Extensions. (SIMD – Single instruction
Multiple Data). Provides many floating-point versions
of the MMX instructions and more. Improves the
multimedia processing.
 Required support from software, which was included
starting from Windows 98 with its DirectX 6.1

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6th Generation AMD-K6
 AMD K6 is based on the Nx686 microprocessor that
NexGen was designing when it was acquired by
AMD.
 It was PIN – compatible with Pentium (Socket-7)
 Included MMX instructions. Reached speeds of
300MHz. Its L1 cache had 64kB.
 Became quite successful being a good and
inexpensive alternative for Intel’s processors.

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6th Generation AMD K6-2 & AMD K6-3
 K6-2 included 21 new instructions – a
response to Intel’s SSE, called 3D Now! And
64kB cache L1 and up to 1024kB of L2
cache on motherboard.
 K6-3 included integrated L2 cache, but still
using cache on motherboard as L3 cache.

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6th Generation AMD Athlon / Athlon XP
 AMD processors that used their own socket to
connect to motherboard (not compatible with Intel).
 In first versions included external L2 cache of size
512kB. Later cache was integrated and reduced to
256kB (XP)
 The completely new FPU – triple issued and
pipelined.
 Contained also Intel’s SSE
 Released also in economical version known as
Duron with limited cache memory.

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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7th Generation – Pentium 4
 Introduced in 2000, started from 0,18 micrometers at
1.3GHz and reached 0.09 micrometers technology
running 3.8GHz
 Introduced new sets of SSE instructions: SSE2 and
SSE3
 L1 cache of 8 to 16kB, L2 cache up to 1MB
 HyperThreading – Simulating two processors in the
system (virtual processor). Let’s two threads to really
run at the same time (without time division).

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7th Generation – Pentium 4
 The Pentium 4 cores had the following
codenames:
– Willarnette – the first one
– Northwood – there could be differed Mobile and
Mobile Pentium 4 M versions
– Gallatin – also know as Extreme Edition with 2MB
of L3 cache.
– Prescott and Prescott 2M (Extreme Edition) with
64bit instructions.

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8th Generation – 64bit processors
 The first 64bit processor was released in
2001 by Intel – Itanium. One year later it
improved it to Itanium 2.
 In 2003 AMD released Athlon 64 and later
Opteron for servers use.
 In 2004 Intel released versions of Pentium 4
that were having 64bit instructions.
The race continues…

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8th Generation – Itanium and Itanium 2
 Dedicated to use in advanced servers and
workstations.
 First processors with all 3 levels of cache
integrated.
 Reached to 0.3 micrometer technology, more
than 592 millions of transistors and 9MB of
L3 cache integrated.

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8th Generation – Athlon 64 and 64FX
 The first 64bit processors for desktop use
 Instead of CPU communicating with memory and
peripheries through the North Bridge, Athlon 64
communicates with memory directly.
 The main differences between Athlon 64 and Athlon
64FX are in size of cache and bus length.
 To compare with Itanium, Athlon 64 contained 68 to
114 millions of transistors.
 12 stages pipeline, L1 cache up to 1MB, SSE2 –
new 144 instructions for sound and graphics

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8th Generation – AMD Opteron
 Version of AMD64 architecture processor for
servers and workstations. Released in 2003.
 There is also the version with double kernel.
 Opteron unlike Intel’s Itanium supports a
wide range of chipsets for motherboard,
making it more flexible choice.

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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Dual core processors
 As the Intel’s processors based on NetBurst core
(the same as in Pentium 4 series) reached the
barrier of 4GHz, they realized that the power
consumption and the amount of heat produced is too
high. Continuing in that way would effect in too
expensive and too noisy system cooling and
maintenance.
 The solution for now is to research towards
processors which work with lower clock speed, but
execute more instructions at the same time. Like
multiple core processors.

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Dual core processors - Intel
 Processor Pentium D
– First it was exactly 2 Pentium 4 Prescott
processors put in one chip module. (year 2005)
– 9 months later the new version was released
including some upgrades, but still consuming a lot
of energy.
– As the Core 2 processors were released in middle
2006, and outperformed Pentium D, the project
has been abandoned together with NetBurst
architecture.

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Dual core processors - AMD
 AMD Athlon 64 X2 released in 2007 works with
speed up to 2.4GHz
 Essentially it consists of two Athlon 64 processors
with some control logic.
 Different versions depending on cache memory.
 Is able to decode SSE3 instructions – better
compatibility with the software.
 Memory controller integrated in the processor.
 Compatible with Athlon 64 and Opteron sockets.

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 Intel Core Duo released at the beginning of 2006 is
32bit processor with dual core.
 Has 2MB L2 cache shared between two cores.
 Contains arbiter that controls access to system bus
and cache.
 Intel was announcing that future versions will have
option of switching off one of the cores to save
power.
 The first Intel processor used in Apple computers.

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 Core 2 Duo was released in the middle of
2006.
 Basically it is the 64bit version of Core Duo
 Outperformed the Pentium processor family
 Different versions available
– Single core / Single core Extreme Edition
– Dual core / Dual core Extreme Edition
– Quad core / Quad core Extreme Edition

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Contents
 1st Generation
 2nd Generation
 3rd Generation
 4th Generation
 5th Generation
 6th Generation
 7th Generation
 8th Generation

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Improvements and actualizations
 To improve performance of the CPU without
replacing it and without changing other parts of the
computer, we can think about better cooling and
overclocking.
 If we want to change the CPU, it can be way easier if
we have chosen a good motherboard earlier.
 In general OverDriving packages are not
recommended.
 It is strongly recommended to wait for at least
second release of the new generation of processors,
as the first ones are usually not working too well.

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Codenames of the processors
 It is good to know where to find the
information about the codenames of the
processors, as a lot of articles on their
architecture are wrote before the processor
was released, still using it’s codename
instead of commercial name.
 Most of the processor codenames can be
found on English wikipedia.

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Thank you for your attention
Piotr Gwizdala

Generation of computer processors

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