AA
Uploaded byAsad Abbas
DOCX, PDF4,978 views

Effectiveness of Reqruitment and Selection System and Shared leadership and its impsct on Team Effectiveness

The document discusses the recruitment and selection system of Atlas Honda Motor Company in Pakistan. It aims to assess the effectiveness of their recruitment and selection practices, identify any challenges, and ways to improve human resource planning. The study found that job advertisements and employee referrals were the main recruitment methods. The selection process was deemed effective in improving employee performance, though it also faced challenges. Recommendations included treating all potential employees fairly during recruitment and selection, and providing constant performance appraisals to help employees improve.

Embed presentation

Downloaded 46 times
1 Abstract The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection system of Atlas Honda Motor Company Sheikhupura, Pakistan. It was to find out the recruitment and selection system of Honda Company, the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection practices the challenges associated with the recruitment and selection practices of Honda Company and ways to help improve human resource planning and development. The study obtained information from HR Manager and 20 employees including supervisors and operators through the use of questionnaires. The results indicated that, advertising of job vacancies and employee referrals are mostly the mode for recruiting potential employees, it was also realized that the method used in the recruiting and selection process was very effective and moreover helped improve employee performance, the study revealed that the selecting and recruitment process are also characterized with lots of challenges. Among the recommendations made were that potential employees should all be treated fairly in the recruitment and selection process, more so employees must be appraised constantly to ensure that they improve upon their performance.
2 Chapter I Introduction This case study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of recruitment and selection system of Atlas Honda Company Sheikhupura. The success of organizations in this modern business environment depends on the calibre of the manpower that steers the day to day affairs of the organizations. The process of recruiting and selecting all categories of employees into both private and public companies has been a matter of concern to many and needs attention. Even though it is the wish of every organization to attract the best human resource in order to channel their collective effort into excellent performances, unconventional selection practices can mar any business plan. The success of a business or an organization is directly linked to the performance of those who work for that business. Underachievement can be a result of workplace failures. Because hiring the wrong people or failing to anticipate fluctuations in hiring needs can be costly, it is important that conscious efforts are put into human resource planning. 1.1 The Concept of Recruitment and Selection According to Costello (2006) recruitment is described as the set of activities and processes used to legally obtain a sufficient number of qualified people at the right place and time so that the people and the organization can select each other in their own best short and long term interests. In other words, the recruitment process provides the organization with a pool of potentially qualified job candidates from which judicious selection can be made to fill vacancies. Successful recruitment begins with proper employment planning and forecasting. In this phase of the staffing process, an
3 organization formulates plans to fill or eliminate future job openings based on an analysis of future needs, the talent available within and outside of the organization, and the current and anticipated resources that can be expanded to attract and retain such talent. Also related to the success of a recruitment process are the strategies an organization is prepared to employ in order to identify and select the best candidates for its developing pool of human resources. Organizations seeking recruits for base-level entry positions often require minimum qualifications and experiences. These applicants are usually recent high school or university/technical college graduates many of whom have not yet made clear decisions about future careers or are contemplating engaging in advanced academic activity. At the middle levels, senior administrative, technical and junior executive positions are often filled internally. The push for scarce, high-quality talent, often recruited from external sources, has usually been at the senior executive levels. Most organizations utilize both mechanisms to effect recruitment to all levels. The focus of recruitment and selection according to Montgomery (1996) is on matching the capabilities and inclinations of prospective candidates against the demands and rewards inherent in a given job. Jovanovic (2004) said recruitment is a process of attracting a pool of high quality applicants so as to select the best among them. For this reason, top performing companies devoted considerable resources and energy to creating high quality selection systems. Recruitment and selection process are important practices for human resource management, and are crucial in affecting organizational success Jovanovic (2004). Due to the fact that organizations are always fortified by information technology to be more competitive, it is natural to also consider utilizing this technology to re-organize the
4 traditional recruitment and selection process through proper decision techniques, with that both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the processes can be increased and the quality of the recruitment and selection decision improved. A human resource information system is a system exploited to acquire, store, manipulate, analyse, retrieve, and distribute relevant information regarding an organization's human resources (Huselid, 1995). The purpose of the system is to support human resource services from the strategic level down to the tactical and operational levels. Many decision-making problems, including recruitment and selection, are herein involved. The system facilitates automated or computerized procedures to solve the problems, and is of vital importance as an aggressive tool in the information age. Researchers indicate that effective recruitment practices and policies enable boards to find the best candidate for their organization. The personnel function becomes especially important when recruiting and selecting new administrators. A critical role for human resource management is how to elicit positive reactions from candidates when discussing administrative roles. When opportunities are presented to employees to move towards careers in administration (i.e., tapping shoulders of potential candidates), often a negative reaction occurs. People without administrative experiences have negative perceptions and views of the role of the administrator. In attempts to attract and support individuals to the administrator’s position it is necessary to identify what barriers prevent potential candidates from applying to the pool. Job complexity and workload are perceived by employees as the two considerations having had the greatest impact on the number of applicants for administrative positions. Other factors include poor remuneration as it relates to demands and expectations of the job and lack of resources
5 and support structures in. Many highly qualified, competent, and talented employees dismiss careers in administration because they do not want to sit in an office all day. Until some alternative image is understood, or at least some support and resources put in place, a problem of pre-screening and identification will not likely improve (Mullins, 1999). 1.2 Recruitment and Selection Process and Development of the Organization Recruitment and selection forms a core part of the central activities underlying human resource management: namely, the acquisition, development and reward of workers. It frequently forms an important part of the work of human resource managers – or designated specialists within work organizations. However, and importantly, recruitment and selection decisions are often for good reason taken by non-specialists, by the line managers. There is, therefore, an important sense in which it is the responsibility of all managers, and where human resource departments exist, it may be that HR managers play more of a supporting advisory role to those people who will supervise or in other ways work with the new employee. Recruitment and selection also has an important role to play in ensuring worker performance and positive organizational outcomes. It is often claimed that selection of workers occurs not just to replace departing employees or add to a workforce but rather aims to put in place workers who can perform at a high level and demonstrate commitment (Dessler, 2000). Recruitment and selection is a topical area. While it has always had the capacity to form a key part of the process of managing and leading people as a routine part of
6 organizational life, it is suggested here that recruitment and selection has become ever more important as organizations increasingly regard their workforce as a source of competitive advantage. Of course, not all employers engage with this proposition even at the rhetorical level. However, there is evidence of increased interest in the utilization of employee selection methods which are valid, reliable and fair. Mullins (1999) indicated that to be a high performing organization, human resource management must be able to assist the organization to place the right person in the right job. The human resource management practices include recruitment, selection, placement, evaluation, training and development, compensation and benefits, and retention of the employees of an organization. Businesses have developed human resource information systems that support: (i) recruitment, selection, and hiring, (ii) job placement, (iii) performance appraisals, (iv) employee benefits analysis, (v) training and development, and (vi) health, safety, and security. The first few activities of human resource management are recruiting and selecting which deal with the actions concerned, and the recruiting is also less frequently alerted in human resource information system recently. Besides, e-recruitment on the web being the current trend for the recruitment and selection processes can further distinguish many activities of the processes. Dessler (2000) lists the essence of these in the following; build a pool of candidates for the job, have the applicants fill out application forms, utilize various selection techniques to identify viable job candidates, send one or more viable job candidates to their supervisor, have the candidate(s) go through selection interviews, and determine to which candidate(s) an offer should be made.
7 1.2.1 The Process of Recruitment Odiorne (1984) indicated that the quality of new recruits depends upon an organization's recruitment practices, and that the relative effectiveness of the selection phase is inherently dependent upon the calibre of candidates attracted. Indeed Smith et al. (1989) argue that the more effectively the recruitment stage is carried out, the less important the actual selection process becomes. When an organization makes the decision to fill an existing vacancy through recruitment, the first stage in the process involves conducting a comprehensive job analysis. This may already have been conducted through the human resource planning process, particularly where recruitment is a relatively frequent occurrence. Once a job analysis has been conducted, the organization has a clear indication of the particular requirements of the job, where that job fits into the overall organization structure, and can then begin the process of recruitment to attract suitable candidates for the particular vacancy. According to Odiorne, (1984) one result of effective recruitment and selection is reduced labour turnover and good employee morale. Recruiting ineffectively is costly, since poor recruits may perform badly and/or leave their employment, thus requiring further recruitment. In a cross national study of recruitment practices, suggests that, in reality, recruitment practices involve little or no attempt to validate practices. Personnel managers tend to rely on feedback from line managers and probationary periods and disciplinary procedures to weed out mistakes. Firms with high quit rates live with them and tend to build them into their recruitment practices and they do not analyze the constitution of their labour turnover.
8 A number of recent studies have suggested that some recruitment methods are more effective than others in terms of the value of the employees recruited. Miyake, (2002) indicated that while advertising is usual for job vacancies, applicants were sometimes recruited by word of mouth, through existing employees. Besides being cheaper, the “grapevine” finds employees who stay longer (low voluntary turnover) and who are less likely to be dismissed (low involuntary turnover). People recruited by word of mouth stay longer because they have a clearer idea of what the job really involves. Miyake, (2002) reviewed five studies in which average labour turnover of those recruited by advertising was 51 per cent. The labour turnover for spontaneous applicants was 37 per cent and turnover for applicants recommended by existing employees was 30 per cent. One hypothesis proposed to account for this was the “better information” hypothesis. It was argued that people who were suggested by other employees were better and more realistically informed about the job than those who applied through newspapers and agencies. Thus, they were in a better position to assess their own suitability. Better informed candidates are likely to have a more realistic view of the job, culture of the organization and job prospects. Burack, (1985) argues that recruitment sources are significantly linked to differences in employee performance, turnover, satisfaction and organizational commitment. In a survey of 201 large US companies, Burack asked respondents to rate the effectiveness of nine recruitment sources in yielding high-quality, high-performing employees. The three top ranked sources were employee referrals, college recruiting and executive search firms. However, Burack, (1985) cautions that, while these general results are useful, there is a need for greater internal analysis of the relative quality of recruits yielded by different sources.
9 In a study assessing the recruitment of new graduates, Kersley et al (1997) reiterated the anticipatory socialization stage for students planning to enter professions, and in particular the effects of recruitment and selection experiences on career expectations and orientation. They agreed that the nature of students’ job search activity, the possession of relevant work experience, and exposure to employers through recruitment and selection activities may form part of the “evolving sequence of a person’s work experiences” which contributes to anticipatory socialization. It has been argued that exposure to employers through recruitment and selection is a social process where employers and potential employees gradually perceive a match. Through job search activities and awareness of employers’ recruitment literature and events, students gather information about organization’s goals, values, climate and work practices to guide their ultimate decision. Exposure to selection procedures provides information about the culture and attributes of an organization, and candidates form judgments from their perceptions of the fairness of the selection methods used. Delery and Doty (1996) argued that providing students with greater awareness of employment opportunities, and equipping them with the ability to be proactive in approaching potential employers, will lead to more effective career self-management and selection processes. There is also evidence that employers prefer graduates with a broader range of skills than just academic knowledge and greater appreciation of business needs both of which can be gained through work experience and awareness of employers’ recruitment and selection procedures. Using a sample of students in two traditional and one emerging profession (law, accountancy and human resource Management), the study examined the extent of career-related pre-employment work, recruitment and selection experiences and
10 the relationship between these experiences and career expectations. The focus on professions reflects the expectation that anticipatory socialization is likely to be greater amongst these students. Although most students in their final years of university training will have had some contact with potential employers, students in dedicated professional courses are likely to be provided with information earlier in their training about potential employment in the profession. This is partly because of the prescribed nature of the degree, the mandatory post-degree training required for membership of the professional institute, unlike the problems identified in general degree courses, because lecturers are likely to have closer ties to the practicing profession. Students in traditional professions, therefore, are exposed earlier to the values of the profession, such as a commitment to client service and a professional code of conduct. The mandatory nature of this training also makes it likely that such a socialization process persists despite idiosyncratic events within a profession; for example, recent concerns with corporate governance within accountancy which may have adversely affected the attractiveness of the profession for students and hence may impact recruitment into the profession (Burack , 1985). 1.3 The Selection Decision While the calibre of candidate is determined by the value of the recruitment process, the selection decision remains a difficult one. Gould, (1984) argues that most mistakes are caused by the fact that managers generally give little thought to the critical nature of the decisions. Employers are surprised and disappointed when an appointment fails, and often the person appointed is blamed rather than recognizing the weaknesses in the process and methodology, even the soundest of techniques and best practice (in
11 selection) contain scope for error. Some of this is due to the methods themselves, but the main source is the frailty of the human decision makers. Selection tools available to organizations can be characterized along a continuum that ranges from the more traditional methods of interviews, application forms and references, through to the more sophisticated techniques that encapsulate biographical data, aptitude tests, assessment centers, work samples, psychological testing, and so forth. Each method of selection has its advantages and disadvantages and comparing their rival claims involves comparing each method's merit and psychometric properties. The degree to which a selection technique is perceived as effective and perhaps sophisticated is determined by its reliability and validity. In a comparison of personnel selection practices in seven European countries explored the utilization of a range of established selection methods. They reported a general trend towards structured interviews in all countries and, while the general validity and acceptability of methods such as work samples, group exercises and assessment centres were widely recognized, reported usage of these methods was infrequent (Miyake, 2002). Clear differences in the frequency of the use of several selection methods did emerge from the study which reported, among others, the very high take-up of references and assessment centers in both the UK and Germany, the high, almost exclusive, frequency of graphology in France, and the limited use of testing and biographical inventories amongst all respondents. In his study of recruitment and selection practices in the USA, Burton (2001) found that approximately 25 per cent of respondent organizations conducted validation studies on their selection methods. Furthermore, in a rating of various selection methods, those perceived to be above average in their ability to
12 predict employees' job performance included work samples, references/recommendations, unstructured interviews, structured interviews and assessment centres. Cran (1995) suggests that developments in the realm of selection lend some support to those who propound the HRM thesis, where a key feature has been the increase in testing designed explicitly to assess behavioral and attitudinal characteristics. He further indicates that the extent to which these more sophisticated and systematic approaches can be, and are, deployed, depends to a large degree, on sectoral circumstances and on the wider employment-management policies being pursued. 1.4 Recruiting Sources/Methods Researchers face many decisions when selecting recruitment methods. Issues to consider include the type of sample (random or convenience), cost, ease, participant time demands (e.g., total time, days of week, and time of day), and efficiency (e.g., staff hours per recruited participant). Researchers have a number of methods from which to choose, including advertising, direct mail, and telephone. Advertising can be used both to publicize a study and to recruit participants. Recruitment via advertising has the advantages of low cost and convenience, but the samples are non-random and often highly motivated, and youth may be especially hard to reach this way. Recruitment via mail is also low in cost and convenient, but youth are difficult to reach by mail and return rates tend to be low. An added problem with mail requests or surveys is that one can never be certain who completed the request/survey (Armstrong, 1991). Institutions or events (such as medical offices, schools, community sports organizations, health fairs, community events, and churches) often are used as a setting for recruitment. Schools present a promising avenue for the recruitment and assessment of youth. Their primary
13 advantage is that they house a large number of children in one place and present a captive audience, although parental consent usually is still required. However, recruitment of participants from schools may meet resistance from school administrations for political or practical reasons. Additionally, recruitment at schools may not achieve the goal of sample representativeness as student characteristics vary between different types of schools (e.g., private vs. public) and between schools in different neighborhoods. Recruitment at schools may not be appropriate in studies having a family or neighborhood context, requiring a greater dispersal of participants from a larger area, or focusing on data collection in the home. Door-to-door recruitment is another option. For large studies, this recruitment method can be costly in terms of staff time and travel expenses, and it is difficult to assure that recruiters randomly sample homes. Despite these concerns, door- to-door recruitment may be a necessary recruitment strategy for certain potential participants (e.g., those who do not have a residential phone) (French, 1982). Telephone recruitment has an important advantage over these methods in that it can be used, in a fairly straightforward way, to randomly select respondents from the larger population. The telephone provides a relatively low-cost, effective means of contacting many households, as is often required for large-scale etiological research, and of making a quick determination of eligibility and willingness to participate in the study. Disadvantages of the telephone method include its limitation to households with telephones, the problems of missing or changed phone numbers, challenges presented by technology (such as answering machines or caller ID) that complicate the ability to reach people, and relatively easy refusal or termination of the conversation by unwilling respondents. Perhaps the largest problem with telephone contact methods involves rates
14 of non-response. Kaplan and Norton (2004) found that the number of people who refused to provide screening information tended to be higher by telephone than in person. However, refusals over the telephone tend to be less likely than with mailed surveys (Kelly, 2006). It should be noted that telephone methods can be used not only for recruitment, but also for data collection. Recent advances in telephone survey methodology have made telephone recruitment and surveying an increasingly attractive option in many research fields (Kaplan & Norton, 2004). Random digit dialing, which involves calling numbers completely at random (since the digits are randomized), is used mostly in household survey research. Other systems, such as computer-assisted telephone interview programs, are used in marketing research and can be adapted for telephone recruiting and data collection in studies requiring specific samples. Working from an appropriate database of phone listings, the system, computer-assisted telephone interview can be used to select and queue numbers randomly, set specific quotas on key respondent variables (e.g., age, sex), and keep track of interviewer productivity and call outcomes. Job posting refers to the practice of publicizing an open job to employees (often by literally posting it on bulletin boards) and listing its attributes, such as criteria of knowledge, qualification, skill and experience. The purpose of posting vacancies is to bring to the attention of all interested persons (inside or out of the organization) the jobs that are to be filled. An organization needs to analyze the benefits and disadvantages of recruiting its personnel through internal or external sources and, where the latter is selected, whether formal or informal systems should be used. There are sound reasons for recruiting from sources within the organization:
15 The ability of the recruit is known so it is easy to assess potential for the next level. By contrast, assessments of external recruits are based on less reliable sources, such as references, and relatively brief encounters, such as interviews. • “Insiders” know the organization, its strengths and weaknesses, its culture and, most of all, its people. Promotions from within build motivation and a sense of commitment to the organization. Skilled and ambitious employees are more likely to become involved in developmental activities if they believe that these activities will lead to promotion. Internal recruitment is cheaper and quicker than advertising in various media and interviewing “outsiders”. Time spent in training and socialization is also reduced. At the same time, several disadvantages exist: Sometimes it is difficult to find the “right” candidate within and the organization may settle for an employee who possesses a less than ideal mix of competencies. If the vacancies are being caused by rapid expansion of the organization there may be an insufficient supply of qualified individuals above the entry level. This may result in people being promoted before they are ready, or not being allowed to stay in a position long enough to learn how to do the job well. Infighting, inbreeding, and a shortage of varied perspectives and interests may reduce organizational flexibility and growth, and resistance to change by those who have an interest in maintaining the status quo may present long term problems. In times of rapid growth and during transitions, the organization may promote from within into managerial positions, regardless of the qualifications of incumbents.
16 Transition activities and rapid organizational growth often mask managerial deficiencies; it is not until the growth rate slows that the deficiencies become apparent and, then, the organization finds it difficult, if not impossible, to undo the damage. The resulting cost of remedial training can prove prohibitive. Recruitment procedures need not be limited to one method. It is possible and often desirable to combine methods to enhance the recruitment success of a particular project. For example, use of focus groups and pilot studies that involve the community and pre-recruitment publicity can lead to higher rates of consent (Drucker, 1999). From the above, the sources of recruitment and selection are through advertising, via the internet and so forth. However recruitment and selection is faced with lots of challenges. 1.5 Challenges of Recruitment and Selection According to Kaplan and Norton, (2004) a common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning. Rigorous HR planning translates business strategies into specific HRM policies and practices. This is particularly so with recruitment and selection policies and practices. The key goal of HR planning is to get the right number of people with the right skills, experience and competencies in the right jobs at the right time at the right cost. Detailed and robust recruitment and selection policies, such as recruitment and selection procedures, assessing criteria, talents auditing and processing the information about the labour market are important in recruiting and deploying appropriate employees at the right time. Past research shows that the competency level of HR managers has a major influence on recruitment and selection and experienced HR experts within the HR department will not only shorten vacancy duration, but also
17 improve the quality of the applicants. Moreover, effective recruitment and selection is possible only if there is a dedicated and competent HR team (Kaplan and Norton, 2004) In the strategy implementation phase, the extent of recruitment and selection strategic integration can be gauged through four distinctive indicators. These indicators are: the timely supply of an adequately qualified workforce, effective job analysis and descriptions, effective selection, and the involvement of line managers in the recruitment and selection practices. A key source of uncertainty in the business strategy implementation is whether there is a timely supply of adequate qualified people, and to a great extent this uncertainty involves the quality of employees. For instance, a firm might decide to leverage a different human capital pool in terms of skills and education level than its rival firms as a competitive strategy even within the same industry to develop specific capabilities or to develop a HR process advantage. An organization can successfully eliminate this uncertainty if its recruitment and selection policies and practices are strategically integrated with business (Whitmell Associates, 2004). Effectively conducting job analysis and targeting right potential candidates ensures a good match between applicants and the jobs. Argument has been given that under qualified employees may not able to effectively perform their job positions due to lack of knowledge and competencies, while on the other hand over qualified employees tend to experience less job satisfaction due to their higher qualification than a desired level for a given job. For every job in the organization, a thorough job analysis, which includes job description and job specifications, is necessary and based on this, an appropriate selection criteria is vital. The job description provides indications of the duties to be undertaken, and the job specification usually prescribes relevant personal
18 qualities and attitudes as well as skills and knowledge required for the job (Johnston, 1999). A range of methods, such as application forms, interviews, formal tests, references, assessment centres and official transcripts are used by firms in the selection process. A firm needs to choose a method that is most appropriate to the job positions. HR experts generally drive the staffing process and the purpose of the staffing is to fulfill the requirements of business, and the skill levels presented by each new recruit is likely to be judged better if the line managers are involved in the recruitment and selection process. (Dess and Jason, 2001) suggest that in business strategy implementation the involvement of line managers in the entire staffing process (i.e., drafting of job descriptions, setting selection criteria and being on the panel of recruitment) is vital for ensuring recruitment and selection to meet business needs. In other words, the line managers are the owner of the recruitment and selection process along with HR playing a facilitator role. Scholars have argued that other key issues and controversies run through analyses of human resource management and recruitment and selection: efficiency, control, and the difficulty of orienting practice towards social justice are often cited. The first two problematic, as (Burton, 2001) notes, have been central to the management of people for as long as managers have been present in organizations. The latter is also common across all organizations, but is a particular academic and policy concern for smaller or growing organizations (Burton, 2001). In recruitment and selection practice the construction of formalized selection frameworks and norms of acceptable discrimination may be seen as an attempt to enable managers to navigate between efficiency, control and social justice.
19 In their advice on how to achieve the perfect fit of person, organization and job, they argue that selecting on the basis of managerial opinion is ‘utterly unscientific and unreliable and that managers are ‘liable to be turned this way and that by the most inconsequential of considerations’. In place of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, these authors propose that physiognomy and the physical-self provide the key to ‘unlocking the inner secrets’ of the individual seeking employment, and therefore should inform the selection process. Managers are advised to assess nose, forehead, chin, habitual facial expression, digestion, skin texture, and elasticity of muscle as found in Blackford and Newcomb, 1914 early people management textbook. The underlying philosophy of this process is that everything about man indicates his character and as much information as possible should be collected to inform a decision - their list also includes religious belief and marital status. Taking heredity and environment as bases for granting or denying access to an organization and job is now legally unacceptable. The argument presented by Blackford and Newcomb (2002), particularly in relation to skin, color and its predictive properties, could be seen as a product of its time and place. However, it is important to note that the study is based on what was then seen as a sound scientific set of ideas and tests, which proved the premises underlying the suggested practice. Recruitment may be conducted internally through the promotion and transfer of existing personnel or through referrals, by current staff members, of friends and family members. Where internal recruitment is the chosen method of filling vacancies, job openings can be advertised by job posting, that is, a strategy of placing notices on manual and electronic bulletin boards, in company newsletters and through office memoranda.
20 Referrals are usually word-of-mouth advertisements that are a low-cost-per-hire way of recruiting. Internal recruitment does not always produce the number or quality of personnel needed; in such an instance, the organization needs to recruit from external sources, either by encouraging walk-in applicants; advertising vacancies in newspapers, magazines and journals, and the visual and/or audio media; using employment agencies to “head hunt”; advertising on-line via the Internet; or through job fairs and the use of college recruitment. 1.6 The Changing Context of Recruitment and Selection Decisions Much of the recent literature on personnel management has emphasized the necessity for the recruitment and selection of employees who are committed to the goals of the organization. Recent waves of organizational restructuring have dramatically changed and, in many cases, destroyed existing employment relationships. As traditional autocratic structures flatten and organizations utilize multidisciplinary teams to remain competitive, the need for strategic and transparent systems becomes paramount (Bingley et al, 2004). Bingley et al, (2004) suggested that, increasingly, many organizations are being transformed from structures that are built on functions and jobs, to those where focused, self-directed work teams, made up of empowered individuals with diverse backgrounds, are replacing traditional specialized workers. Cran, (1995) highlighted that firms need adaptable people who can adjust to rapidly changing customer needs and operational structures, while Burton (2001) argues that employees, and the way they work, comprise the crucial difference between successful and unsuccessful organizations. He argues that
21 as technology increases and product life cycles shorten, the major source of competitive advantage will be the individual worker. Delery and Doty, (1996) further developed this view of the prevailing business environment and reiterated that: with the sweeping changes in today's business climate and the rise of re-engineering to meet the needs of organizations in the area of downsizing or cost diminution, (search) firms must be equipped to recruit individuals who can operate in a non-structured or “virtual” organization. Even in today's technically advanced business environment, the human factor will always be instrumental to the success of an organization. Furthermore, Drucker, (1999) indicates that, as companies downsize, “delayer” and try to boost productivity with fewer people, those that remain are being asked to assume more tasks, roles and responsibilities. He proposes that, as this trend continues, companies will be asking fewer employees to know more, do more, change more and interact more and thus interest is increasingly focused on identifying the recruiting sources that are most likely to yield high quality employees and the selection methods that best predict future job performance. Arguments such as these have led to suggestions that the critical organizational concern today is the hiring or promoting of the best qualified people while still meeting all regulatory requirements. A study commissioned by the IPD's Recruitment Forum highlighted a number of common failings in the recruitment and selection process. Included among these failings were: a) No obvious link with HR strategy, resourcing strategy and broader business and Organizational goals; b) Use of referencing for short listing; c) Unclear use of structured interview design and application; d) Increasing use of invalid prediction methods; e) Lack of widespread
22 monitoring and lack of remedial action in those organizations that did monitor recruitment; f) Lack of validation of situation specific selection procedures. These results are suggestive of an inability or unwillingness to appreciate the strategic imperative of effective recruitment and selection practices. Smith and Robertson (1993) argue for greater precision in recruitment and selection and caution that a company can be dragged to its knees by the weight of ineffective staff which decades of ineffectual selection methods have allowed to accumulate. Smith and Robertson, (1993) further noted that the problem of inefficiency may be as a result of a difficulty in distinguishing good practice from common practice. Should this be the case then the problem may lie less with the processes utilised and more with the traditional perception of what constitutes effective, valid recruitment and selection practices. The traditional perspective on recruitment and selection assumed a rational framework, where the largely objective qualifications of the individual were matched to the requirements of the job (Stoner and Freeman, 1992). The assumptions of the rational model imply that those making the decisions have real knowledge about the job, real knowledge about the applicants' job relevant qualifications, can objectively compare these qualifications with the job demands and select the applicant with the best match. However, more recently, there is growing evidence to suggest that the notion of ‘fit’ as it relates to suitability has assumed heightened significance in organizational settings. Kersley et al, (1997), defines ‘fit’ as the degree to which the goals and values of the applicant match those of individuals considered successful in the organization. Kersley et al, (1997) further highlights this notion of fit as the key to job success: Think back in your career and ask yourself, of all the people you know who failed in a job and
23 were terminated, how many of them failed because they lacked the right educational degree, the right job experience, or the right industry background? In all likelihood, most of them failed because of inadequate interpersonal skills, an inability to communicate, or because they just didn't fit in with the culture; in other words bad chemistry. More specifically, (Armstrong, 1991) identify the “organizational chameleon” as a corporate creature who embodies the perfect fit in terms of organizational demands for values, beliefs, attitudes and so forth, while advocating that an organizational analysis be carried out prior to making staffing decisions to identify the dominant values, social skills, and personality traits required of potential job applicants. Such an approach challenges the rational model of recruitment and selection and brings into focus the “form versus substance” issue. According to (Armstrong, 1991), the core of this problem is associated with the difficulties involved in distinguishing candidates who are truly qualified (i.e. substance) from those who simply construct images of qualifications and competence (i.e. form). This problem is compounded in a situation where candidates actively seek to alter and manage images of competence, with the result that the decision maker is attempting to hit a moving, rather than a stationary, target. In an attempt to explain why the rational model has limited application in the current business environment, Delery and Doty, (1996) find three particular arguments: (1) In an increasingly competitive environment the content of jobs may change quickly over time, because of shifts in corporate strategies or technological innovations. Stable person/job match is unlikely in such unpredictable organizational environments. (2) The increasing use of self-managed teams makes it difficult to view individual jobs as the key unit of analysis. Team members may be given the responsibility of allocating tasks between members and
24 engage in collective problem-solving efforts that can be more meaningfully understood at the group level of analysis. (3) Research has documented that person/job match may not be sufficient to achieve high job satisfaction, commitment and job performance among employees. It is necessary also that employee hold values that are congruent with those of the organization. Delery and Doty, (1996) concluded that this requirement for ‘fit’ encapsulates the congruence of the personality traits, beliefs, and values of the employee with the culture, strategic needs, norms and values of the organization and thus reinforces the necessity for greater empirical evaluation of the mechanisms employed to measure such characteristics. 1.7 Recruitment and Selection Practices and Performance Recruitment, as a human resource management function, is one of the activities that impact most critically on the performance of an organization. While it is understood and accepted that poor recruitment decisions continue to affect organizational performance and limit goal achievement, it is best that much effort is put in the recruitment and selection practices (Randall, 1987). Recruitment and selection also has an important role to play in ensuring worker performance and positive organizational outcomes. It is often claimed that selection of workers occurs not just to replace departing employees or add to a workforce but rather aims to put in place workers who can perform at a high level and demonstrate commitment (Ballantyne, 2009). Recruitment and selection play a pivotally important role in shaping an organization’s effectiveness and performance, if work organizations are able to acquire workers who already possess relevant knowledge, skills and aptitudes
25 and are also able to make an accurate prediction regarding their future abilities, recruiting and selecting staff in an effective manner can both avoid undesirable costs for example those associated with high staff turnover, poor performance and dissatisfied customers and engender a mutually beneficial employment relationship characterized, wherever possible, by high commitment on both sides. Pilbeam and Corbridge, (2006) provide a useful overview of potential positive and negative aspects noting that: ‘The recruitment and selection of employees is fundamental to the functioning of an organization, and there are compelling reasons for getting it right. Inappropriate selection decisions reduce organizational effectiveness, invalidate reward and development strategies, are frequently unfair on the individual recruit and can be distressing for managers who have to deal with unsuitable employees.’ Recruiting and selection is very important for the survival of every organization but that does not end there, new recruits need to be developed and appraised from time to time in order for them to be abreast with new trends and challenges. When employees are developed it help increase their performance and help sustain the growth of organizations. 1.8 Human Resource Development Companies can only succeed in the long-term if they recruit and motivate people who are able to respond to and shape the challenges of the future. These are the individuals with the capacity to create competitive advantage from the opportunities presented by changing markets, with the desire to learn from customers, consumers, suppliers and colleagues, and who possess the ability to build and influence long-lasting and effective partnerships (Walker, 1990). The recruitment of new employees helps to demonstrate a company’s aspirations, highlighting the skills and attitudes to which it
26 attaches the highest priority. The choice also provides a major opportunity to communicate the values and successes of the organization – to explain why the company offers the most attractive place for a person to develop their career. Yet this competition for top talent is nothing new; and if the challenge for HR managers is to spot the best people and win their favour (Walker, 1990). A well-prepared and motivated workforce is possibly the most important of the three intangible assets to support an organization’s value creating processes. According to Peter Drucker “The most valuable asset of a 20th century company was its production equipment. The most valuable asset of a 21st century institution will be its knowledge workers and their productivity (Drucker, 1999). A great deal exists in the literature about the provision of staff development and training as investment for organizations. Staff development and staff training are parts of the bigger concept of human resource development (HRD). Training is just one possible way to organize and implement learning processes in organizations and not always the most effective one. HRD encompasses the broad set of activities that improve the performance of the individual and teams, hence the organization. Training and development have come to be viewed as lifelong activity, rather than the front end acquisition of qualifications. As a result, the focus of concern has shifted from what the trainer does, to what the learner requires. The ultimate aim of the training and development process has been characterized as the creation of the learning organization, constantly reviewing its mistakes and successes and adapting its activities appropriately. The issues of workforce demographics, desirable characteristics of the workforce and the obstacles to achieving the workforce which is well prepared, motivated and strategically ready in today’s
27 libraries, are key elements to be considered when discussing human resource development. Some of the other issues/challenges confronting human resource managers in this context are: Do we hire for today’s needs or tomorrow’s? How can we hire for the future needs of the library? How do we go about providing human resource development for the needs of the organization as a whole, not just for the specific jobs people perform? These issues are not confined to libraries. Many other organizations are also trying to deal with these challenges. Until recently, the focus when hiring has been more on skills, for reference, cataloguing, IT and so on, rather than on attributes like strategic thinking, flexibility, adaptability and commitment to lifelong learning. There is a growing trend now to “hire for attributes and then train for the skills” (Whitmell Associates, 2004). The need to hire staff with abilities such as flexibility, adaptability, leadership potential and learning agility is increasingly recognized by human resource managers. The process of bringing in such changes to our workplaces is not straightforward as it affects the hiring process as well as staff development and training activities. To keep alive the principles of training and development, all related initiatives need to be integrated. Hiring, orientation, communication, performance reviews, and rewards and recognition are interrelated and therefore should be linked to each other and to the training and development programs. Recruitment of staff that is flexible, strategic thinkers, multi-skilled, open to change and responsive is not a simple, straightforward process as identification of individuals with these skills is not as easy as identification of those with cataloguing, reference or IT skills. Retaining these skilled people and ensuring that once hired, they are motivated and continue to enhance the skills and attributes they had when they joined
28 the organization may present challenges for human resource managers. It requires creation of an environment within the organization to ensure these happen, in other words a “knowledge-based organization” equipped to deal with the constantly changing environment.
29 Chapter II Method 2.1 ResearchDesign The research was based on assessing recruitment and selection practices of Honda Company. Case study method was used. Case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. The design was a descriptive study which used both quantitative and qualitative tools to recruitment and selection practices adopted by Honda Company. 2.3 Participant Atlas Honda Motor Company Sheikhupura, Pakistan was selected for this case study. HR Manager and 20 other employees of the company were selected to gather data about the recruitment and selection system of the company. Mean age of the participants was 37 years. Average experience of the participants in the company was 9 years. 2.4 Assessment Measures 2.4.1 Demographic information questionnaire A demographic information questionnaire was formed particularly for this case study. The questionnaire inquired information like age, hometown, current city, education, marital status. Some questions related to personal history were also asked in that questionnaire. Through those questions, information about educational carrier, past working experience, designation and family background were asked.
30 2.4.2 Self-developed Questionnaires Two self-developed questionnaires was used, one for HR Manager and one for other employees. Questionnaire for employees consisted of 14 questions. Questionnaire for HR Manager consisted of 21 questions. Some questions were open ended and some were close ended. The researcher prepared the questionnaires to be responded by the sampled employees of the organization. The questions were designed to make the purpose of the study successful after the results have been ascertained. This instrument gave expected information about the recruitment and selection procedures or practices. 2.5 Procedure An initial meeting was held at office of the company, Faisalabad road, Sheikhupura. The purpose of the case study was explained to the HR Manager of the company and other participants to convince them for the case study before their permission. This meeting ended in 30 minutes. An authority letter was issued from institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore which also explained nature of the case study and request to give data. After three days researcher again visited the company to collect data. First of all consent was taken and demographic questionnaire was filled in by HR Manager. Then self-developed questionnaire for HR Manager was given and filled in, in the presence of researcher. Then permission was granted by HR Manager to collect data from employees. The participants were taken consent form first and researcher assured them that all collected data will be kept confidential. They was also given right to withdraw whenever they want. First, participants signed consent forms and then demographic questionnaire was filled in. After that self-developed questionnaire for employees were given to the participants to get information about recruitment and
31 selection system of the company. The participants were relaxed and participated in the study with full attention. This session ended with in 40 minutes. Then data was analyzed and results presented. Table 1.1 Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Variables (Education, Marital Status, Family system, & Family background) of the Sample. Variables f % Education Intermediate 5 25 Graduation 12 60 Master 3 15 Marital Status Married 13 65 Unmarried 7 35 Family system Nuclear 11 55 Joint 9 5 Family Background Rural 5 25 Urban 15 75
32 Chapter III Results 3.1 Formal Policy for Recruitment and Selection of Employees The researcher wanted to know if the company had any formal policy for recruiting and selection of employees, responses are as follows; Out of 20 respondents, all agreed with the question, that the company had a formal policy for recruiting and selection of employees. Respondents were further asked to state this policy. Six (6) respondents sated that recruitment and selection is mainly an internal arrangement, the human resource department accesses the various departments where there are vacancies, the department then assesses staff requirements with those qualifying appointed to fill these vacancies. This assertion tallies with Smith et al (1989) that when an organization makes the decision to fill an existing vacancy through recruitment, the first stage in the process involves conducting a comprehensive job analysis. Once a job analysis has been conducted, the organization has a clear indication of the particular requirements of the job, where that job fits into the overall organization structure, and can then begin the process of recruitment to attract suitable candidates for the particular vacancy. Most companies first look within their ranks for such people after which suitable candidates from outside are invited. 3.2 Outline of Job Analysis This was to find out from respondents if the company outlines roles, duties and responsibilities for a particular job. From the total number of respondents, the majority of sixteen (16) representing 80% of the population answered in the affirmative that the
33 company outlines job analysis like the roles, duties and responsibilities before advertising a vacant position. 20% of the population constituting respondents however answered in the negative that the company does not outline job analysis in terms of duties and responsibilities before advertising. From the discussion it is realized that the majority of respondents agreed with the statement that the company outlines job analysis before advertising. 3.4 Recruiting Agencies This was to find out from respondents if Honda Company relies on any recruitment agencies in the selection of employees. Answers from respondents are as follows; Out of twenty (20) respondents, all agreed that the company rely on recruiting agencies in the selection of employees. The researcher further wanted to know if existing employees are considered when there are vacancies, once again respondents agreed that existing employees are considered when vacancies are available. More so job vacancies are also made to the public depending on the requirements and number of people needed. 3.5 Methods of Recruitment by Honda Company In order to know the various types of methods used by Honda Company in selecting employees, this question was asked. Answers from respondents are as follows; Eight (8) respondents stated that the company uses newspaper adverts in adverting for jobs or as a recruitment section tool, respondents explained that newspapers are read by lots of people and therefore lots of people are covered. Five (5) respondents
34 were of the opinion that the company uses employees’ referrals as a means of recruiting that is employees inform their friends and relations that the company has vacancies. Three respondents stated that the band relies on recruiting agencies in selecting employees for the company. Finally, four (4) respondents shared that another method of recruiting was through professional associations. According Armstrong, (1991) organizations and employers have a number of methods from which to choose, including advertising, employment agencies, and through direct mail. Advertising can be used to publicize and to recruit participants. Recruitment via advertising has the advantages of low cost and convenience according to Armstrong. Drucker, 1999 also stated that for organizations to get the best of employees recruitment procedures need not be limited to one method. It is possible and often desirable to combine methods to enhance the recruitment success of a particular project. In a related issue, respondents were asked if the company had a structured recruitment and selection practices for new employees, respondents had this to say; All twenty (20) respondents agreed that the company had structured recruitment and selection practices in place for new employees. Eleven (11) respondents agreed that one of such structures and selection practices was educational qualifications, thus one or potential employees should have the necessary educational qualification in order to be considered. An interview is another practice in the selection of new employees, all prospective employees must go through an interview process to be assessed, if the person involved is capable of the work to be done, five (5) respondents shared this view.
35 Four (4) respondents explained that after the selection process through the interview, new employees are trained in the selected positions they were employed before they are fully allowed to start their new roles or jobs. 3.6 Selection Practices of Honda Company Related to the above respondents were asked which of the following were considered for recruitment and selection of employees, that is academic qualifications, work experience, interviews and tests. Out of twenty (20) respondents, eleven (11) agreed that tests are considered in selecting and employee, this is usually to test the general knowledge of prospective employees. Five (5) employees were of the opinion that work experience played an important role in the selection process as those with experience are considered to be the best for the job. Four respondents opted for interviews; they explained that interviews are conducted to test the ability of new employees and how convincing they are before being selected.
36 The literature revealed that a wide range of methods, such as application forms, interviews, formal tests, references, assessment centres and official transcripts are used by firms in the selection and recruitment process. An organization chooses a method that is most appropriate to the job positions. 3.7 Challenges of Recruiting and Selection Practices at Honda Company The researcher wanted to find out the challenges the department encounter in the recruiting and selecting of employee. Responses are as follows; One challenge facing recruitment and selection process at Honda Company is the availability of key talents in the job market for specialized areas within the company. Twelve (12) respondents constituting 60% of the population who shared this view stated that Honda as an institution needs key talents to help run the company and that is quite difficult to find in the job market. Seven (7) respondents representing 35% of the population were of the opinion that another challenge facing Honda in its recruitment and selection processes is competition from other institutions. Respondents explained that financial institutions in the country are spring up fast, and they are all recruiting the best in order to stay on top. Recruiting in this sense means competing with other institutions for the same human resource. Another challenge according to one (1) respondent constituting 5% of the population was labour turnover, the respondents explained that most employees leave the institution shortly after being offered an appointment which goes a long way to affect the company as money has to spent again in recruiting and selection process.
37 According to Kaplan and Norton, 2004, in the literature review, a common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning but the analysis revealed that labour turnover; competition and lack of key talents are challenges that face recruitment and selection which could be beyond HR departments. 3.8 Factors to Help Improve Recruitment and Selection Practices at Honda Company Respondents were asked to give factors that will help improve recruitment and selection practices at Honda Company, answers are as follows; Three (3) respondents emphasized that vacancies should be advertised early and should be detailed enough for prospective applicants to assess themselves whether they can do the job required of them. Respondents reiterated that vacancies are not made public in time and the duties and roles are most often not properly specified. Twelve (12) respondents stated that the procedure for selection of potential employees should be strictly adhered to. Respondents explained that job requirement and its relevant experience should be adopted in the selection of new recruits which cost little and more so time saving as such people spends little or no time during orientation. Five (5) respondents stated that adequate background check on all potential employees should be the order of the day. Respondents explained that the department should not solely rely on the qualifications and experience but lifestyles and background of all would be employees should be checked to make sure the best is being recruited for the company.
38 3.9 Effectiveness of Recruitment and Selection Practices of the Honda Company This was to find out from respondents how effective the recruitment and selection practices of Honda Company, respondents were to choose one of the following; very effective, good, not effective, indifferent and bad as their answers. Out of a population of twenty (20), five (5) constituting 25% of the population were of the opinion that the selection and recruitment practices were very effective and that the right materials are employed for the company. Nine (9) respondents believed that the recruiting and selection practices were good, they explained that the methods needed for the right person to be employed are used. These respondents constituted 45% of the population. Three (3) respondents forming 30% of the population were of the opinion that the recruitment and selection practices of the company were not effective. They explained that these practices always give room to favouritism especially with employee referrals while some are employed without necessarily going through all the right procedures. Respondents were further asked if job vacancies are made or open to the general public, 80% respondents answered in the affirmative while 20% answered no, that job vacancies are not made public. Respondents were then asked to give the methods through which vacancies are made available, their answers are as follows;
39 Seventeen (17) respondents stated that the company uses newspaper adverts to advertise for job vacancies, preferable state owned newspapers are used for this. Eight (8) respondents stated that employee referrals are used in the selection of new employees. It is realized from figure 5 that responses are more than the number of sampled respondents, this is as a result of respondents selecting more than one response in relation to the question asked. 3.10 How Respondents were Selectedand Employed This was to find out from respondents how they were recruited and selected, thus by what means, answers from respondents are as follows; From the sample size of twenty (20), eight (8) were recruited after having served as national service personnel. Respondents stated that they got to know of the vacancies while serving as national service personnel. These respondents constituted 40% of the total population. Five (5) respondents who constituted 25% of the population wrote application letters to the company, they were shortlisted and invited for an interview. 20% of the population responded that they answered an advertisement in the dailies on positions that were vacant. Four (4) respondents in all agreed to this. Three (3) respondents constituting 15% of the population were employed or applied for jobs through employee referrals. Respondents stated that they were informed by their relatives and friends of vacant positions at the company which they applied for and were employed.
40 From the discussions and figure 6 above it is realized that National Testing Service play an important role in the selection process of the company in recruiting new employees followed by advertisement as the both constituted over 65% of the method used in the selection and recruitment process. 3.11 Recruitment and selection Practices and Performance This was to find out from respondents if the selection and recruitment practices had affected their performance, responses are as follows; Out of twenty (20) respondents, sixteen (16) answered that ‘yes’ the selection practices had affected their performance while just four (4) answered in the negative that it has not affected their performance. Respondents who answered in the affirmative explained that most of them would not have been able to perform their duties if not for the recruitment and selection methods. Others explained that the orientation and job training given them has added to their stock of knowledge. Respondents who answered ‘no’ explained that the selection and recruitment practices had no bearing on what they were doing at the moment; this makes their work difficult and hampers performance at work. The recruitment of new employees helps to demonstrate a company’s aspirations, highlighting the skills and attitudes to which it attaches the highest priority. Companies can only succeed in the long-term if they recruit and motivate people who are able to respond to and shape the challenges of the future. While at the same time employees can
41 perform when they are developed or given the needed attention to perform. Job orientation and training is not enough to enhance performance, motivation, feedback and appraisals can help improve performance (Walker, 1990). Respondents were further asked if there were equal opportunities for all potential employees, out of twenty respondents, thirteen (13) agreed that there were equal opportunity for all while seven (7) disagreed that there existed equal opportunity as some potential employees already know their fate before interviews are conducted, thus there is favouritism on the part of some would be employees. 3.12 Improving Recruitment and Selection Practices at Honda Company The researcher wanted to find out from respondents how recruitment and selection practices or processes could be improved at Honda Company, answers from respondents are as follows; The majority of twelve (12) respondents were of the opinion that all applicants should be given an equal opportunity of being selected and treated fairly while all favouritism and biases are eliminated to ensure that all get a fair chance of being selected and employed at the company. Five (5) respondents were of the opinion that the general public should be made aware through advertisement for all to apply while at the same time given an equal opportunity. Finally, three (3) respondents stated that job orientation and applicants with the right qualifications should be given the opportunity. Respondents explained that though
42 job orientations are often done for new recruits, qualification should be linked with the job. 3.14 Case formulation Atlas Honda Limited is a joint venture company between Atlas Group and Honda Motor Co. Ltd. Japan. The company is at the cutting-edge of technology in the vast field of auto engineering and is the largest manufacturer in Pakistan. Atlas Honda Sheikhupura plant is preparing motorbikes. At the Sheikhupura unit they are preparing four models CD70, Pridor, Cg125 and Deluxe. Mr. Saadullah Ejaz is HR Manager of the Sheikhupura plant. Honda Motor Co., Ltd. is a Japanese public multinational corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles and power equipment. Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second- largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. The company was incorporated in Pakistan on November 04, 1992 and joint venture agreement was signed on August 05, 1993. Miyake, (2002) indicated that advertising is usual for job vacancies, while some applicants are sometimes recruited by word of mouth, through existing employees (employee referrals). Besides being cheaper, people recruited by word of mouth stay longer because they have a clearer idea of what the job really involves. This assertion was
43 shared by most respondents with regards to recruitment and selection practices at Honda Company. The research revealed that Honda Company policy or practice on recruiting and selection was based on several units; the first is the internal recruitment and invitations from applicants from the general public. The first is analysis of the various departments to find out if there are vacancies to be filled. The various departments search within its staff to find competent members to fill job vacancies. When that fails employee referrals are used where employees are allowed to recommend potential employees for the various departments. Some of the methods used in recruiting and selection of employees are through employee’s referrals, employment agencies, professional associations and through adverts in the various dailies. The research also revealed that the company had structured ways of selecting new employees. The first is that potential employees must have the necessary or right educational background before they qualify for an interview which is the next stage once a potential employee is shortlisted. Training and orientation is the next stage if an individual is selected or recruited. The analysis realized that 14% of the respondents were of the opinion that selection and recruiting practices were very effective as the right material are always employed, majority of respondents believed that these practices were good and they constituted 46%. It shows that 60% percent of the respondents agreed that these measures were effective. The other 30% were either indifferent or believed that these measures
44 were not effective and the reasons raised included favouritism and bias towards potential employees. More so it was realized that factors such as work experience, academic qualifications, interviews and test used in selecting employees makes the selecting and recruitment practices very effective in selecting the best for the company. Randall, (1987) believes that recruitment, as a human resource management function, is one of the activities that impact most critically on the performance of an organization. This is because it is understood and accepted that poor recruitment decisions continue to affect organizational performance and limit goal achievement. The study revealed that recruitment and selection practices have improved performance of employees and the company, 80% of respondents stated that the selection and recruitment process has helped them improve upon their performance at the company and in what they do. It was also revealed that orientation and subsequent job training had added to their stock of knowledge of most employees which help them effectively carry out their duties. Respondents stated that the selection and recruiting method had led to the employment of competent staff while at the same time selection practices help give the chance to employ qualified candidates. In spite of the above some respondents were of the view that the recruitment and selection practices have not improved performance as orientation and job training are general and most often not linked with the job. A common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning. The key goal of HR planning is to get the right number of people with the right skills, experience
45 and competencies in the right jobs at the right time at the right cost. Detailed and robust recruitment and selection policies, such as recruitment and selection procedures, assessing criteria, talents auditing and processing the information about the labour market are important in recruiting and deploying appropriate employees at the right time. Despite the above it was realized that Honda Company is faced with other challenges in its recruitment and selection practices. The major challenge facing Honda Company in its recruiting and selection practices is lack of key talents in the job market for specialized areas within the bank. Honda Company as a financial institution deals in normal banking activities while massively involved in mortgaging which needs specialized skills in order to serve its customers and such skills from the study is lacking thereby affecting the performance of the company. Competition is another challenge Honda Company facing in its recruiting and selection practices. The financial market in the country is now very competitive thereby there is a rush for those with the experience and skills to help the various companiess float and have competitive advantage over others. This therefore makes the competition for skilled labour in the field difficult. Labour turnover is another challenge faced by Honda Company in its recruitment and selection practices. From the survey it was realized some employees immediately after employment vacate or leave their post and take on a different one leading to a loss to the bank, the challenge is therefore how to retain such employees once they are employed.
46 The analysis revealed that Honda Company has policies and practices with regards to recruiting and selection of employees, the following were given to help improve upon such practices. Respondents stated that the procedure for recruiting and selection should be strictly followed in order to ensure that the right materials are provided for the bank. Procedures such as educational or academic qualification, experience and interviews all help select the best of candidates for the company. More so, it was realized that equal opportunities should be given to all applicants who apply for jobs at company to help ensure fairness in the selection procedure and not to hand others undue advantage over others. Moreover it was realized that to make the selection and recruitment procedure complete qualifications should be stressed and should also be linked with the job to be done as most qualifications do not much the job to be done. 3.15 Conclusion The focus of recruitment and selection is to match the capabilities of prospective candidates against the demands and rewards inherent in a given job. For this reason, top performing companies devote considerable resources and energy to creating high quality selection systems. Recruitment and selection process are important practices for human resource management, and are crucial in affecting organizational success. The quality of new recruits depends upon an organization's recruitment practices, and that the relative effectiveness of the selection phase is inherently dependent upon the caliber of candidates attracted.
47 From the analysis, recruitment and selection is of prime importance to Honda Company in order to get the best of employees, however, it faces lots of challenges in its quest to recruit its workforce. The issue of employee referrals seems to place unfair advantage over others, as more often than not, they are favoured compared to those who use a different channel. From the analysis it was realized that, more employee referrals are employed than those who apply in directly or through the agencies. Despite these challenges it was realized that these measures (recruitment and selection practices) have been effective in the selection of employees for Honda Company even though much needs to be done to enhance it. Recruitment and selection of employees to a greater extent determines the performance of an institution and it is of great importance if institutions want to achieve their goals. 3.16 Recommendations and management plan From the study it is realized that recruitment and selection is of great importance to every organization, though an integral part of human resource planning and development, it application and operation and challenges makes its practice quite difficult. These recommendations are therefore made to help make these practices more effective. All applicants must be treated fairly; issues of favouritism should be avoided while giving the chance to all. Employee referrals though a good idea should be minimized to cater for a certain number of people rather than a whole scale opportunity.
48 That gives room to favouritism and at times employment of individuals who might not contribute meaningfully to organizational output. The human resource department should appraise employees to help them give off their best and help improve performance of employees; this will always keep employees on their toes to give off their best. Refresher courses must be organized for employees for them to be abreast with trends in the ever growing market. It was revealed in the analysis that key talents are difficult to come by, the company can help upgrade the skills of some of its staff in areas they find difficult to recruit in the market. This will also go a long way to help staff contribute to the success of the company.
49 References Armstrong, M. (1991) A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, 4th Edition, Kogan Page, London. Biles, George, E. & Holmberg, Stevan, R. (1980). Strategic Human Resource Planning, Glenn Ridge, New Jersey: Thomas Horton and Daughters. Bingley, Paul and Niels Westergaard-Nielsen (2004), Personnel Policy and Profit, Journal of Business Research, 57: 557-563. Burack, Elmer H. and Mathys, Nicholas J. (1985), Human Resource Planning, Lake Forrest, I1 Brace-Park Press. P130. Costello, D. (2006), Leveraging the Employee Life Cycle, CRM Magazine, 10 (12), 48- 48. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database. Cran Cheryl (1995), Employee Retention Strategy, How to Attract and Retain Top Performers, Sada NY, Blue Boulder Internet Publishing. Delery, J. E. and Doty. D. H. (1996), Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency and Configuration Performance Predictions, Academy of Management Journal. Volume.39, 802-835. Dess, Gregory, G. and Jason, D. Shaw (2001), Voluntary turnover, social capital, and Organizational performance, Academy of Management Review, 26(3): 446-456. Dessler, Gary (2000), Human Resource Management, Eighth Edition. New Jersey, USA, 2000.
50 Drucker, P. (1999), Knowledge-Worker productivity: The Biggest challenge, California Management Review 41(2): 79-94. French, W. L. (1982), The Personnel Management Process, 5th ed,. Boston: Houghton Miffin. Gould, Richard (1984), Gaining a Competitive Edge through Human Resource Strategies, Human Resource Planning. Huselid, Mark A. (1995), The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Turnover, Productivity, and Corporate Financial Performance, Academy of Management Journal, 38: 635–672. Johnston, R. (1999), Supporting Learning in the Third Millennium. Human Resource Development, Learning. J. P. Wilson. Herndon, Stylus Publishing: 475-494. Jovanovic, Boyan (2004), Selection and the Evolution of Industry. Econometrica, 50(3): 649670. Kaplan, R. S., Norton, David P. (2004), Measuring the Strategic Readiness of Intangible Assets, Harvard Business Review 82(2): 52-64 Kelly D. (2006), Human Resource Development: For Enterprise and Human Development, http://ro.uow.edu.au/artspapers/114. Kersley, Barbara and Christopher Martin (1997), Productivity Growth, Participation and Communication, Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 44(5): 485-501.
51 Miyake, D. (2002), Implementing Strategy with the Balanced Scorecard: An Introduction to the Strategy-Focused Organization, DM Review. Miyake, D. (2004), Implementing Strategy with the Balanced Scorecard: An Introduction to the Strategy-Focused Organization, DM Review. Mullins, L. J. (1999), Management and Organizational Behaviour, 5th Edition, Pearson Education, Essex. Odiorne, George, S. (1984), Human Resources Strategies for the Nineties, Hax. Smith, J. J., & Robertson, W. M. (1989), Manpower Planning and Development, The Developing World, International Human Resources Development Corporation. Boston, Massachusetts. Stoner, I., and Freeman, B. (1992), Tools for Manpower Planning, The World Bank Models, Washington, D.C. Walker, James (1990), Human Resource Planning, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., P95 Whitmell Associates (2004), Workforce and Succession Planning in the Libraries of the Australian Technology Network, Preparing for Demographic Change. Ontario, Canada.
52 CASE REPORT NO. 2
53 Abstract The main purpose of this case study was to investigate shared leadership in a team and its impact on the effectiveness of the team. This case study concentrates on internal team leadership with the shared leadership perspective, which emphasizes collaboration and relational processes of construction as the bases of leadership, pointing at the relational, collectivist and non-authoritarian nature of leadership practices in contemporary teams in organizations. Thus, the purpose of this study is to advance the understanding of the shared leadership phenomenon in self-managed teams, and especially to enhance understanding of shared leadership in team settings when all team members participate in the leadership process without formal leadership roles. The team selected for this case study was consisted of four members. They worked as couriers in Leopards Courier Services Lahore. The present case report was conducted in two phases. In first phase case history form was given to all team’s member to assess the demographic information. In second phase Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Teams (SPLIT), (Kauffeld,1978) was used to assess shared leadership in the team and Team Effectiveness Questionnaire was used to assess the effectiveness of the team. Results revealed that shared leadership increases the effectiveness of the team. The case team worked more effectively without a formal leader.
54 Chapter I Introduction Leadership is necessary for the effectiveness of the teams and organizations. The challenges facing organizations today require an exhaustive review of the strategic role of leadership. In this context, it is necessary to explore new types of leadership capable of providing an effective response to new needs. The present day situations, characterized by complexity and ambiguity, make it difficult for an external leader to perform all leadership functions successfully. Likewise, knowledge based work requires providing professional groups with sufficient autonomy to perform leadership functions. 1.1 Shred leadership Shared leadership has been conceptualized in many ways (Carson et al. 2007; Friedrich et al. 2009), but the underlying theme in these definitions is that shared leadership involves the distribution of the leadership responsibilities within the team, while not negating the possibility of vertical leadership. Shared leadership is seen as a group process by which leadership is distributed among, and stems from, team members (Pearce & Sims 2000). Shared leadership has also been defined it as leadership distributed among organizational units (Rawlings 2000) and a management model based on philosophy of shared governance, where those performing the work are the ones who best know how to improve the process (Jackson 2000). The quest for developing an integrative definition of shared leadership has been elusive. Avolio et al. (2009) declare that the most widely cited definition of shared leadership comes from Pearce & Conger (2003, 1), who define shared leadership as:
55 a dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals or both. This influence process often involves peer, or lateral, influence and at other times involves upward or downward hierarchical influence. In the team context shared leadership can be seen as a relational, collaborative leadership process or phenomenon involving team members who influence one another mutually and share duties and responsibilities otherwise relegated to a single, central leader. The key is that the team as a whole participates in the leadership process. At the core of the concept of shared leadership is the idea that leadership is not the preserve of an individual but a fluid or emergent property rather than a fixed phenomenon (e.g. Day et al 2004; Harris 2008; Spillane 2006). This conception of leadership moves beyond trying to understand leadership through the actions and beliefs of single leaders to understanding leadership as a dynamic organizational entity. This study focuses on shared leadership in the team context. Shared leadership is seen as an emergent team property resulting from the distribution of leadership influence across multiple team members. Shared leadership entails sharing power and influence broadly among the team members rather than centralizing it in the hands of a single individual who acts in the clear role of a leader. By identifying the team itself as a key source of influence, this study points to the relational nature of leadership as a social construct where leadership is seen as social process of relating processes that are co- constructed by several team members. Based on recent theoretical developments concerned with relational, practice-based and constructionist approaches to the study of
56 leadership processes, this case study proposes the study of leadership interactions, working processes and practices to focus on the construction of direction, alignment and commitment. During the research process, critical events, activities, working processes and practices of a case team have been examined and analyzed with the grounded theory –approach in the terms of shared leadership. There are a variety of components to this complex process and a multitude of factors that may influence the development of shared leadership. The study suggests that the development process of shared leadership is a common sense -making process and consists of four overlapping dimensions (individual, social, structural, and developmental) to work with as a team. For shared leadership to emerge, the members of the team must offer leadership services, and the team as a whole must be willing to rely on leadership by multiple team members. For these individual and collective behaviors to occur the team members must believe that offering influence to and accepting it from fellow team members are welcome and constructive actions. Leadership emerges when people with differing world views use dialogue and collaborative learning to create spaces where a shared common purpose can be achieved while a diversity of perspectives is preserved and valued. This study also suggests that this process can be supported by different kinds of meaning-making and process tools. Leadership, then, does not reside in a person or in a role, but in the social system. The built framework integrates the different dimensions of shared leadership and describes their relationships. In the real world, teams and organizations can create conditions to foster and facilitate the process. We should encourage leaders and team
57 members to approach leadership as a collective effort that the team can be prepared for, so that the response is rapid and efficient. Teams play an increasingly essential role in the functioning of organizations (e.g. Goodwin, Burke, Wildman & Salas 2009; Hills 2007; Kozlowski & Bell 2003), and leadership becomes a crucial factor in the effectiveness of these teams (e.g. O’Reilly, Caldwell, Chatman, Lapiz & Self 2010; Zaccaro, Rittman & Marks 2001). The basic idea behind the use of teams is that team implementations involve some degree of empowerment of members. Teams typically work on distinct and relatively whole tasks, possess a variety of skills within their membership, and have authority and autonomy to make decisions about how and when work is done, and by whom (e.g. Cohen & Bailey 1997; Katzenbach & Smith 1993; Wellins, Byham & Wilson 1991). Through the decentralization of power, authority and decision-making responsibilities, organizations find flexibility and quick response capabilities necessary to stay competitive in their business (e.g. Ancona & Bresman 2007; Houghton, Neck & Manz 2003; Lipman-Blumen & Leavitt 2000). Teams tend to reduce the dependence on traditional leader authority figures. Establishing effective influence processes that enable teams to achieve positive outcomes usually requires nontraditional approaches to leadership – involving empowering others and sharing influence. Perhaps more than any other factor associated with work teams, empowerment has created demands for radical evolvement of leadership practices (Manz, Pearce & Sims 2009). It is an increasingly common expectation for employees to be able to work effectively in teams, where there is often no formally appointed leader (e.g. Day et al. 2004; Zaccaro, Heinen & Schuffler 2009).
58 The complexity of current team arrangements is also a new challenge for team and team leadership research (Burke, Diaz Granados & Salas 2011; Mathieu et al. 2008; Yukl 2006). As the prevalence of teams has increased, researchers have sought to understand the factors that promote their effectiveness. One factor argued to be critical in determining team effectiveness is team leadership. Compared to traditional leadership, team varies leadership dynamically with the situation, assumes that subordinate roles and linkages are tightly coupled, and highlights coordination demands (Burke et al. 2011). Without leadership, the team members are unlikely to identify e.g. with the team objectives (Sivasubramaniam, Murry, Avolio & Jung 2002). As Zaccaro et al. (2001) maintain, the leadership processes influence also the team´s cognitive, motivational, and affective processes. Moreover, the leadership process affects the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the team members (Ensley, Pearson & Pearce 2003). 1.1.2 The nature of leadership in teams Effective team functioning is derived from several fundamental characteristics (Zaccaro et al. 2001). Teams need to define future directions and organize themselves to maximize progress along such directions. Thus, team leadership becomes a critical determinant of team performance. The team members need to integrate their individual actions and work with others in their team as they strive to accomplish the goals and objectives. Team dynamics can thus have an important influence on the performance of the team. Teams are also increasingly required to perform in complex environments where leadership and team performance may be dynamically and recursively related. The relationship between team performance and leadership can affect the evolution of the team, and as well as future leadership in the team and its performance (Day et al. 2006).
59 Thus, team leadership can be considered an input to the team that influences mediating variables and leads to outcomes (e.g. performance) that can affect future inputs, such as leadership in subsequent periods (Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson & Jundt 2005; Mathieu et al. 2008). Conceptually, team researchers have converged on a view of teams as complex, adaptive, dynamic systems (McGrath, Arrow & Berdahl 2000). Over time and contexts, teams and their members cycle and recycle continually. They interact among themselves and with other persons in the contexts. These interactions change the teams, team members, and their environments in ways more complex than captured by simple cause- and-effect perspectives. As teams work together over time, they move through two interrelated kinds of performance cycles (Morgeson, Lindoerfer & Loring 2010). The first occurs with the passage of time as the team members gain experience of working with one another, and they move through a set of fairly universal experiences. What matters early in a team´s life is likely to differ from what matters later, in part because of the accumulation of experiences and the history of the team. The second kind of performance cycle is episodic. As teams interact, they cycle through distinct planning and action phases (Marks, Mathieu & Zaccaro 2001). Planning phases are times of transition where upcoming work is evaluated and planned. Action phases are times when teams perform tasks in the fulfillment of a goal. As teams work together over time, they cycle repeatedly through planning and action phases, and their need to vary across these phases. The reawakening of interest in teams is related to wider changes in the world of work and organizations driven by economic, strategic and technological imperatives. The
60 pressures of global competition, the need to consolidate business models in complex and shifting environments, and the pursuit of continuous innovation have led to a reappraisal of the team as a key element of the basic organizational architecture (e.g. Ancona & Bresman 2007; Kozlowski & Bell 2003). In this context, the joint action of individuals working together in a cooperative manner to attain shared goals through the differentiation of roles and functions, and the use of elaborate communication and coordination systems, are now viewed as essential to effectiveness and competitive advantage. This surge of interest in the use of teamwork has focused upon improving the performance outcomes of business processes. Teams are used in organizations for example to reduce costs and to improve such outcomes such as quality, productivity and process dependability as well as psychological benefits for the team members concerning self-belief and intrinsic motivation (for an overview, see e.g. Cohen & Bailey 1997; Kauffeld 2006; Tata & Prasad 2004; Yukl 2006). Zaccaro et al. (2009) have integrated existing frameworks into an overarching model of leadership and team dynamics. This model rests on two central assumptions. First, the impact of effective team leadership lies on fostering greater interconnectivity, integration, and coherence among team members. Team leadership establishes the direct and indirect conditions that help team members work well together. It contributes to the reduction of process loss. “The focus of analysis resides at the nexuses of team members´ actions, not on how team leadership influences individual attitudes, beliefs, motives, or behaviors” (Zaccaro et al. 2009, 93). The second assumption of the model extends the first one by arguing that the influence of leadership on team performance and effectiveness is mediated mostly by its effects on team interaction dynamics (Zaccaro et al. 2009).
61 1.2 Approaches to leadership research in teams Several researchers have noted that we know surprisingly little about “how leaders create and handle effective teams” (Zaccaro et al 2001), and there needs to be more focus on the leadership of teams (Hackman & Walton 1986; Zaccaro et al. 2009). Thus, the application, conceptual and empirical work on team leadership has most commonly been done with the approach that suggests that leader behavior should vary with the function being performed (see e.g. Burke et al. 2011; Hackman & Wageman 2005; Hackman & Walton 1986; Morgesson, DeRue & Karam 2010; Zaccaro et al. 2001; Zaccaro et al. 2009). This functional perspective is defined as a normative approach to describing and predicting group performance that focuses on the functions of inputs and/or processes (Wittenbaum et al. 2004). Three core assumptions define the functional perspective: (1) groups are goal-oriented; (2) group performance varies in quality and quantity, and can be evaluated; and (3) internal and external factors influence group performance via the interaction process. This approach asserts that teams can be more effective as long as they are designed well, are composed of people with the requisite skills and knowledge, and have members who can work well with each other and with others outside the group (Cummings & Ancona 2005). The role of leadership is “to do, or get done, whatever is not being adequately handled for group needs” (McGrath 1962, 5; quoted e.g. in Hackman & Walton 1986). This approach defines team leadership in terms of social problem-solving processes that advance the team´s attainment of its performance goals. These processes include interpreting and diagnosing team problems, generating and valuating team solutions and implementing selected solutions (Zaccaro et al. 2001).
62 Team leaders have been argued to engage in many kinds of behaviors to foster team effectiveness. Most of the work has extended traditional leadership theories to the areas of teams, neglecting the unique role of leaders in teams (Burke et al. 2011). Team leaders are heavily engaged in developing and maintaining the issues that facilitate a response to dynamic task and developmental contingencies. Despite this fact, it is important to recognize that e.g. the functional view of team leadership is deliberately inclusive when it comes to who satisfies team needs (Morgesson, DeRue & Karam 2010). Because multiple individuals are often capable of satisfying team needs, it has been suggested that we “devote attention to the study of leadership rather than leaders,” in part because of the “observation that many every-day groups have different leaders in different situations” (McGrath 1962, 3; quoted in Morgeson, DeRue & Karam 2010). For example, Kozlowski, Watola, Jensen, Kim and Botero (2009) discuss fluid and flexible leadership that adapts to the contingencies of the task, work demands, members´ competencies and the relationships among them. The ‘leader role’ can be transferred to different members and rotated among them according to the circumstances. Team leadership can be thus conceptualized as “the process of team need satisfaction in the service of enhancing team effectiveness” (Morgesson, DeRue & Karam 2010, 8). The studies of shared leadership generally consider leadership to be an influence process that any team member can choose to engage in. The work on shared leadership recognizes the same complexity present within organizational settings as was discussed also as a rationale of empowerment. It relies on underlying tenets that “those who are doing the job are often in best position to improve it” (Jackson 2000, 16). This form of leadership has been argued to be most useful when the tasks are interdependent and
63 complex. Thus, shared leadership is considered more effective when the team develops complex tasks related to knowledge creation (e.g. research and development, consultancy, decision making) (Pearce 2004). The current shared leadership models do not go far along the continuum towards fuller team engagement in leadership. Most research on shared leadership takes the approach that it is a static condition where the role behaviors may be explicitly divided or entirely shared (Yukl 2006). Individuals generally share some leadership attributes or tasks but this may be controlled by top-down leaders, or a range of leadership tasks are actively distributed but power and authority are not and distribution is ineffective. Much of the work on the interaction between leaders and teams also appears to make the assumption that the members that the leader is acting on are a homogenous unit in which the individuals are assumed to have similar characteristics and respond to the leader in the same way (Zaccaro et al. 2001). However, this is not the case in the real situation. Rather, the team members typically bring diverse skills and expertise to the table, which is an important precondition for the selective emergence of different individuals into the leadership role. Like Friedrich et al. (2009, 934) argue “rather than a defined set of two or more leaders sharing the leadership role, it may be more like a ‘whack-a-mole’ game in which the person with the most relevant skills and expertise ‘pops up’ at any given time”. This selective emergence of individuals can arise through informal channels but may be explicitly activated by a leader or a set of leaders.
64 1.3 Team Effectiveness Shea and Guzzo (1987b) defined team effectiveness as "production of designated products or services per specification" (p. 329). This overlooks the possibility that a team can "burn itself up" through unresolved conflict or divisive interaction, leaving members unwilling to continue working together (Hackman & Oldham, 1980, p. 169). We favor a broad definition that accounts for members' satisfaction and the group's future prospects as a work unit by incorporating team viability. At a minimum, this entails member’s satisfaction, participation, and willingness to continue working together. A more demanding definition might add cohesion, intermember coordination, mature communication and problem-solving, and clear norms and role small traditionally identified with team maturity. Performance means acceptability of output to customers within or outside the organization who receive team products, services, information, decisions, or performance events (such as presentations or competitions). The term ‘team’ typically refers to a group of two or more people who interact interdependently toward some common objectives or goals. For example Kozlowski and Ilgen (2006) define teams as being composed of individuals who to some degree (1) share a social identity as a unit, (2) possess common goals, (3) are interdependent in terms of tasks or outcomes, (4) have distinct roles within the team, and (5) are embedded in a larger organizational or societal context that they influence and are influenced by. As the focus in this research is on knowledge-based work teams, the interdependency of the team members is a critical feature of defining the essence of a team in organizational context (Salas, Rosen, Burke & Goodwin 2009). Key elements are also that the teams are empowered to attain goals that fit with the overall strategy of the organization and
65 conform to goals of the business units within which the teams are nested, and that the teams are empowered to have the knowledge, skills, information, resources, and power to perform in a manner that enables them to make a difference (Mohrman, Cohen and Mohrman Jr (1995). Katzenbach and Smith (1993) focus on performance in their definition of a team. In addition to team members having a common purpose, performance goals are connected to this purpose, for which everyone in the team is held mutually accountable. Katzenbach and Smith also believe that the concept of a team should be limited to a fairly small number of people with complementary skills, who interact directly. This helps also in distinguishing team from work groups, whose members do the same tasks jointly but do not require integration and coordination to perform the task (e.g. Forsyth 2010; Levi 2007). ‘Group’ is a more inclusive term than ‘team’. A team is not simply people who belong to the same group or who are coacting in the same place. The term ‘team’ has largely replaced ‘group’ in the literature, but the latter predominates in many studies because ‘group’ is used as the root word in the terminology. Also in this research when referring e.g. to research on group dynamics, the term ‘group’ is used. There has recently been an increase in the use of the term ‘team’ in settings that house knowledge work (e.g. DeNisi et al. 2003; Pearce 2004). The reason is clear. It is ever more difficult for any one person to have all the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for all aspects of knowledge work. This kind of a situation is typical in a wide variety of contexts ranging e.g. from cross-functional tasks in organizations to R&D labs, from education to consulting work. There is a need for knowledge based resources which include all the intellectual abilities and knowledge possessed by employees, as well as
66 their capacity to learn and acquire more knowledge (DeNisi et al. 2003). Thus, knowledge-based resources include what the employees have mastered, as well as their potential for adapting and acquiring new information.
67 Chapter II Method 2.1 ResearchDesign Case study design was used to assess shared leadership and team effectiveness of the team. Questionnaire method was used to collect data. Case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. Typically data were gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). 2.2 Sample The team consisted of four members were selected as a sample from Leopard Courier Services Gulberg Lahore, Pakistan. The age range of the participants was 20-43 and average age range was 26 years. All participants were couriers. Each participant has minimum 2-5 years’ experience in this field and is skilled person. The reason behind the selection of this sample was that it was convenient for researcher to collect data from this team because a researcher’s friend was also working in that team. Another reason was that researcher was interested to study the phenomenon of shared leadership and this team has no formal leadership that is why this sample was selected for this study.
68 Table 2.1 Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Variables (Education, Marital Status, Family system, & Family background) of the Sample. 2.3 Assessment Measures 2.3.1 Demographic information questionnaire A demographic information questionnaire was formed particularly for this case study. The questionnaire inquired information like age, hometown, current city, Variables f % Education Intermediate 2 50 Graduation 2 50 Marital Status Married 1 25 Unmarried 3 75 Family system Nuclear 2 50 Joint 2 50 Family Background Rural 1 25 Urban 3 75
69 education, marital status, satisfaction level, responsibilities in team, relationship with the coworkers, likeness and dislikeness of their team members and supervisors and working experience in current industry. Some questions related to personal history were also asked in that questionnaire. Through those questions, information about educational carrier, past working experience, personal ascriptions, and relationship with coworker and goals for future was taken. 2.3.2 Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Team (SPLIT) Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Team (SPLIT) developed by Simone Kauffeld (1978) was used to assess the phenomena of shared leadership in teams. This scale comprised of 20 items. Cut of score for this scale was 60. All items were positive measure of shared leadership in a team. 2.3.3 Team Effectiveness Questionnaire (TEQ) The Team Effectiveness Questionnaire simply provides people with a mechanism for exploring and discussing aspects of behavior, found to lie at the heart of effective teams. The higher the scores, the greater the potential for effectiveness. But more importantly, from a learning perspective, the more variation in those scores between team members, the more there is to understand about why perspectives differ. The TEQ clusters behaviours into eight attributes or qualities. Clarify vision, Set targets and boundaries, Empower and authorize, Praise and acknowledge, Maintain vibrant internal communication, Encourage divergence and innovation, Champion the team externally, Share learning and improve and Celebrate and exploit diversity. 2.4 Inclusion criteria
70  A courier team was selected  Team without a formal leader was selected  All members were from the same company  Minimum education level was Intermediate 3.5 Exclusion criteria  Members working outside the office were excluded  Managerial staff members were also excluded from the study. 2.6 Procedure Present case study was completed in several phases. First phase was the selection of a team. Researcher contacted with the team through a friend. An authority letter was issued from institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore which explained nature of case study and request to give data. A consent form was also taken from institute of applied psychology university of the Punjab Lahore. An initial meeting was held at office of company at Gulberg Lahore and participants were informed about the nature of the study. They were told that data will be collected in two phases. It was assured to the participants that data will be kept confidential. All team members showed their consent to participate in this case study and agreed for the first session. The first session meeting was held in company’s office. A case study form containing information about the family, educational and professional history of the case was filled in. The participants were relaxed and participated in first session with full attention. The session was completed within 40 minute.
71 After some days team was contacted again for the second phase of the study. The researcher explained the detail of the second session to the participants. The instruction was given to the participants. In this session all quantitative assessment measures were filled in by the participants. Second session ended in 1 hour and 40 minute. All assessment measures were analyzed against participant’s score on each scale. At the end, the participants were thanked for their cooperation. Quantitative analysis of all assessment measures and results were presented.
72 Chapter III Results Table 3.1 Assessment of shared leadership and Team Effectiveness. Variable Obtained Score Cutoff Score Level Shared Leadership 78 60 Very High Team Effectiveness Clarify vision 17 15 Average Empower and authorize 19 15 High Praise and acknowledge 21 15 High Maintain vibrant internal Communication 16 15 Average Encouragement 22 15 Very High Champion the team Externally 20 15 Very High Share learning and improve 18 15 High Celebrate and exploit Diversity 24 15 Very High 3.1 Case Formulation Leopards Courier Services team consisted of four members was selected from Leopards Courier Services Gulberg Lahore, Pakistan. Leopards Courier Services was inaugurated in 1983 with five destinations, serving as offices for Saadat insurance, as well as for Leopards Courier, with delivery restricted to five destinations alone.
73 As industry developed in Pakistan, and more raw materials and other products were to be dispatched nationwide, the need for a courier service grew, and Leopards found itself fulfilling a bigger need-helping local industry grow. As a result of this business growth, Leopards has now expanded to over 1036 destinations for general clients (express centers). At each of these express centers, Leopards employees have been trained and placed to help clients find services that best fulfill their needs. Currently, they employ over 3000 couriers and 1000 express center employees. The Leopards Team is always when it comes to solving logistic and courier issues with new products, and continues to come up with new and innovative products, which help their company and employees grow. Case team consisted of four members. They all are couriers and supply things to the different places of the city. They were working in very friendly environment. They have good friendly and cohesive relationship among them. They all have equal responsibilities and equal duties. There was no concept of formal leadership in the team. All team members shared their leadership responsibilities and each member considered him responsible for their tasks and other activities within the team. Previous literature on shared leadership indicated that shared leadership instead of formal leadership is better for team performance or effectiveness. Because of shared leadership responsibilities team members work more effectively and they consider themselves responsible for each and every task. The impact of shared leadership on team effectiveness was revealed from results. The study suggested that the present team of Leopard Couriers Services did not have formal leader and their effectiveness of doing tasks was very good. Despite the augmentation effects shown for these leadership approaches with their emphasis on
74 collective confidence, identity, and outcomes, the basic approach has been on followers’ individual performance and effectiveness rather than examining its effects in group contexts (e.g. Cox, Pearce & Parry 2003; Jung & Sosik 2002). Thus, in recent developments, shared leadership -models has challenged the notion of leader-centricity by re-focusing the leadership issue on a group-level, and there has been an emerging debate in the field of leadership studies on the notions of shared perspectives on leadership (see e.g. Pearce & Conger 2003; Parry & Bryman 2006). This debate has emerged from the practical advantages of sharing leadership duties between two or more persons in suitable situations (Carson et al. 2007; Pearce 2004; Spillane 2006), and advantages that are increasingly becoming the subject of empirical research (e.g. Carson et al. 2007; Ensley, Hmieleski & Pearce 2006; Hiller et al. 2006; Mehra, Smith, Dixon & Robertson 2006; Pearce & Sims 2002; Pearce, Yoo & Alavi 2004; Sivasubramaniam et al. 2002; Solanski 2008; Taggar, Hackett & Saha 1999). Taken as a whole, these studies supported that shared leadership is an important predictor of team performance, and provides an additional resource to teams beyond the leadership of any single individual. Results revealed that the team scored high on praise and acknowledgement. Praise and acknowledgement is the basic component of team effectiveness. The participative decision-making theory contributed prominently to shared leadership. Originally developed by Vroom and Yetton (1973), the normative model of leadership behavior proposed the possible involvement of subordinates in decision-making processes (Field & Andrews 1998; Pierce & Conger 2003). With this model Vroom and Yetton (1973) tried to specify which of a set of alternative decision making processes, varying in opportunity for subordinate participation, should be used in different situations. The model provided a
75 decision tree consisting of seven factors for managers to follow based on responses to a set of situations. The participative decision making model allowed managers to examine these factors before deciding what level of involvement they should allow the subordinates to have in the decision-making process. The components of this model provided managers with decision styles labeled autocratic, consultative, or group-based (Field & Andrews 1998). The Vroom and Yetton model was revised during the 1980´s by Vroom and Jago (1988). This new version expanded the original Vroom and Yetton model with a more specific analysis of the decision situation. The new version contained five situational characteristics in addition to the original seven factors (Field & Andrews, 1998; Vroom & Yago 1988). Results also suggested that when all team members participate in the leadership process without formal leadership roles this promoted the effectiveness of the team and team performance of doing different tasks was good. The highest score of the team was on celebrate and exploit diversity component of effectiveness. They celebrate and exploit diversity in the team as their score was very high on this component of team effectiveness. The level encouragement among all the team members was also very high. The team has clear vision and good command on performing their tasks. The case team has a culture where each and every member received praise and acknowledgement from other members of his team. 3.2 Conclusion There were two types of measures used for assessment. Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Team (SPLIT) showed that there was shared leadership in the
76 team. They have no formal leader in their team. All members of the team shared equal authority of decision making and all other tasks they performed. The Team Effectiveness Questionnaire assessed the performance and effectiveness of the team. It revealed that the case team has good collaborated way of working. All members were working effectively which was good for their team and also for the whole industry. They all were satisfied and their score was high on all dimensions of effectiveness (Clarify vision, Set targets and boundaries, Empower and authorize, Praise and acknowledge, Maintain vibrant internal communication, Encourage divergence and innovation, Champion the team externally, Share learning and improve and Celebrate and exploit diversity). 3.3 Limitations and suggestions There is no cross checking of information which is another question to validity of data. To overcome this limitation, so multiple rating should be used overcome this limitation. Fakeness of responses is possible because the whole assessment was based on self-reporting. According to the point of company and employer view to evaluate the team members should be included. Scales used in this study were not indigenous and norm based. Indigenous and norm based assessment measures should be used for this study. Another limitation of this study is the lack of training of study conductor. Study conductor should be trained and confident.
77 References Ancona, D., & Bresman, H. (2007). X-teams: How to build teams that lead, innovate, and succeed. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current theories, research, and future directions. The Annual Review of Psychology, 421 - 449. Burke, C. S., DiazGranados, D., & Salas, E. (2011). Team leadership: A review and look ahead. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. Uhl-Bien, The Sage Handbook of Leadership (pp. 338 - 351). London: Sage. Carson, C. M., Mosley, D. C., & Boyar, S. L. (2004). Goal orientation and supervisory behaviors: Impacting SMWT effectiveness. Team Performance Management, 10(7/8), 152 - 162. Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. (1997). What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from shop floor to the executive suite. Journal of Management, 23, 239 - 290. Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. (1997). What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from shop floor to the executive suite. Journal of Management, 23, 239 - 290. Cox, J. F., Pearce, C. L., & Perry, M. L. (2003). Toward a model of shared leadership and distributed influence in the innovation process: How shared leadership can enhance new product development team dynamics and effectiveness. In C. L.
78 Pearce, & J. A. Conger, (2005).Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp. 48 - 76). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cummings, T. G., & Ancona, D. G. (2005). The functional perspective. In S. A. Wheelan, The handbook of group research and practice (pp. 107 - 118). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Day, D. V., Gronn, P., & Salas, E. (2004). Leadership capacity in teams. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 857 - 880. Day, D. V., Gronn, P., & Salas, E. (2004). Leadership capacity in teams. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 857 - 880. DeNisi, A. S., Hitt, M. A., & Jackson, S. E. (2003). The knowledge-based approach to sustainable competitive advantage. In S. E. Jackson, M. A. Hitt, & A. S. DeNisi, Managing knowledge for sustained competitive advantage (pp. 3 - 33). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ensley, M. D., Pearson, A., & Pearce, C. L. (2003). Top management team process, shared leadership and new venture performance: A theoretical model and research agenda. Human Research Management Review, 13, 329 - 346. Field, R. H., & Andrews, J. P. (1998). Testing the incremental validity of the Vroom- Jago versus Vroom- Yetton models of participation in decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 11, 251 - 261. Forsyht, D. R. (2010). Group dynamics, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Centage Learning.
79 Friedrich, T. L., Vessey, W. B., Schuelke, M. J., Ruark, G. A., & Mumford, M. D. (2009). A framework for understanding collective leadership: The selective utilization of leader and team expertise within networks. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 933 - 958. Goodwin, G. F., Burke, C. S., Wildman, J. L., & Salas, E. (2009). Team effectiveness in complex organizations: An overview. In E. Salas, G. F. Goodwin, & C. S. Burke, Team effectiveness in complex organizations: Cross-disciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 3 - 16). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Hackman, J. R., & Wageman, R. (2005). A theory of team coaching. Academy of Management Review, 30, 269 - 287. Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman, & Associates, Designing effective work groups (pp. 72 - 119). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Harris, A. (2008). Distributed leadership: according to the evidence. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(2), 172 - 188. Hiller, N. J., Day, D. V., & Vance, R. J. (2006). Collective enactment of leadership roles and team effectiveness: A field study. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 387 - 397. Hills, H. (2007). Team-based learning. Burlington, VT: Gower. Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., & Manz, C. C. (2003). Self-leadership and superleadership: The hart and art of creating shared leadership in teams. In C. L.
80 Pearce, & J. A. Conger, Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp. 123 - 140). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. (2005). Teams in organizations: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 517 - 543. Jackson, S. (2000). A qualitative evolution of shared leadership barriers, drivers, and recommendations. Journal of Management in Medicine, 14(3/4), 166 - 178. Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (2002). Transformational leadership in work groups: The role of empowerment, cohesiveness, and collective-efficacy on perceived group performance. Small Group Research, 33(3), 313 - 336. Katzenbach, J. R.;& Smith, D. K. (1993). Tiimit ja tuloksekas yritys. Helsinki: Weilin&Göös. Kauffeld, S. (2006). Self-directed work groups and team competence. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 1 - 21. Kozlowski, S. W., & Bell, B. S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. Klimoski, Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology: Vol 12 (pp.333 - 375). London: Wiley. Kozlowski, S. W., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams. Psychology Science, 7, 77 - 124. Levi, D. (2007). Group dynamics for teams, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
81 Lipman-Blumen, J.;& Leavitt, H. J. (2000). Kuumat ryhmät tuloksen tekijänä. Helsinki: WSOY. Manz, C. C., Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. (2009). The ins and outs of leading teams: An overview. Organizational Dynamics, 83(3), 179 - 182. Marks, M. A., Mathieu, J. E., & Zaccaro, S. J. (2001). A temporary based framework and taxonomy of team processes. Academy of Management Review, 26(3), 356 - 376. Mathieu, J., Maynard, M. T., Rapp, T., & Gilson, L. (2008). Team effectiveness 1997- 2007: A review of recent advancements and a glimpse into the future. Journal of Management, 34(3), 410 - 476. McGrath, J. E. (1962). Leadership behavior. Some requirements for leadership training. Washington, DC: U.S. Civil Service Commission, Office of Career Development. McGrath, J. E., Arrow, H., & Berdahl, J. L. (2000). The study of groups: Past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(1), 95 - 105. Mehra, A., Smith, B. R., Dixon, A. L., & Robertson, B. (2006). Distributed leadership in teams: The network of leadership perceptions and team performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 232 - 245. Mohrman, S. A., Cohen, S. G., & Mohrman Jr, A. M. (1995). Designing team-based organizations: New forms for knowledge work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Morgeson, F. P., Lindoerfer, D., & Loring, D. J. (2010). Developing team leadership capacity. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman, The Center
82 for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development, 3rd ed. (pp. 285 - 312). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. O'Reilly, C., Caldwell, D., Chatman, J., Lapiz, M., & Self, W. (2010). How leadership matters: The effects of leaders' alignment on strategy implementation. Leadership Quarterly, 21(1), 104 - 113. Parry, K. W., & Bryman, A. (2006). Leadership in organizations. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W. R. Nord, The Sage handbook of organization studies, 2nd ed. (pp. 447 - 467). London: Sage. Pearce, C. L. (2004). The future of leadership: Combining vertical and shared leadership to transform knowledge work. Academy of Management Executive, 18(1), 47 - 57. Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. (2004). Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr, Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations (pp. 180 - 203). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rawlings, D. (2000). Collaborative leadership teams: Oxymoron or new paradigm? Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 52(1), 36 - 48. Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., Burke, C. S., & Goodwin, G. F. (2009). The wisdom of collectives in organizations: An update of the teamwork competencies. In E. Salas, G. F. Goodwin, & C. S. Burke,(2000). Team effectiveness in complex organizations: Crossdisciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 39 - 79). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
83 Sivasubramaniam, N., Murry, W. D., Avolio, B. J., & Jung, D. I. (2002). A longitudial model of the effects of team leadership and group potency on group performance. Group & Organization Management, 27, 66 - 96. Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Tata, J., & Prasad, S. (2004). Team self-management, organizational structure and judgments of team effectiveness. Journal of Managerial Issues, 16(2), 248 - 265. Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (1988). Managing participation: A critical dimension of leadership. Journal of Management Development, 7(5), 32 - 42. Vroom, V. H., & Yetton, P. W. (1973). Leadership and decision-making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. Wellins, R., Byham, W., & Wilson, J. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating selfdirected work groups that improve quality, productivity, and participation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. Wittenbaum, G. M., Hollingshead, A. B., Paulus, P. B., Hirokawa, R. Y., Ancona, D. G., Peterson, R. S.,et al. (2004). The functional perspective as a lens for understanding groups. Small Group Research, 35(1), 17 - 43. Yukl, G. A. (2006). Leadership in organizations, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Zaccaro, S. J., Heinen, B., & Shuffler, M. (2009). Team leadership and team effectiveness. In E. Salas, G. F. Goodwin, & C. S. Burke, Team effectiveness in
84 complex organizations: Cross-disciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 83 - 111). New York, NYPsychology Press. Zaccaro, S. J., Rittman, A. L., & Marks, M. A. (2001). Team leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 451 - 483.

More Related Content

PPTX
Human Resources - Recruitment Process
bynetwizlk
 
PDF
Organisation Workforce Planning PowerPoint Presentation Slides
bySlideTeam
 
DOCX
Project Report
byNavya Annepu
 
PDF
Workforce Management Powerpoint Presentation Slides
bySlideTeam
 
PPTX
Recruitment and selection
byNitin Dhariwal
 
PPTX
Talent Acquisition Strategy
byMuhammad Asif Khan Awan
 
PDF
HR Strategic Planning
byNet at Work
 
PPT
Career Planning and Development
byYodhia Antariksa
 
Human Resources - Recruitment Process
bynetwizlk
 
Organisation Workforce Planning PowerPoint Presentation Slides
bySlideTeam
 
Project Report
byNavya Annepu
 
Workforce Management Powerpoint Presentation Slides
bySlideTeam
 
Recruitment and selection
byNitin Dhariwal
 
Talent Acquisition Strategy
byMuhammad Asif Khan Awan
 
HR Strategic Planning
byNet at Work
 
Career Planning and Development
byYodhia Antariksa
 

What's hot

PDF
9 box matrix
byshakib362
 
PPTX
Human resource planning
byPreeti Bhaskar
 
PPTX
Workforce planning
byDr Kiran Kakade
 
PPTX
Succession planning workshop
byBeth Armknecht Miller, CMC
 
PPTX
Human Capital Management
byTalwandi Sabo Power Limited
 
PDF
Employee Hiring PowerPoint Presentation Slides
bySlideTeam
 
DOCX
A Comprehensive Project Report on HRIS
byRadhika Gohel
 
PPTX
Recruitment Strategy.pptx
byYodhia Antariksa
 
PDF
Questionnaire on Performance Management System
byHR at VASHI ELECTRICALS PVT. LTD.
 
PPTX
Succession Planning , objectives and steps
bydeepmalasingh50
 
PDF
Assignment on Human Resource Management
byMd Naim Hasan Towhid
 
DOCX
Study on effectiveness of training and development
byAnoop Voyager
 
PDF
Performance management survey
byChandrakant Varma
 
PPT
Employee health, safety and security
byBibin Ssb
 
PDF
Recognition and Reward Resource Guide
byshershenow
 
PPT
Talent management
byyamini-reddy
 
PPTX
KPI for Human Resource Management
bySCS universal
 
PDF
HR SWOT Analysis: Introduce effective HR Management
byCreativeHRM
 
DOC
Questionnaire on recruitment and selection
byinstitute of Business management and Research
 
PDF
MBA HR PROJECT REPORT ON TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
bySaid Salim Palayi
 
9 box matrix
byshakib362
 
Human resource planning
byPreeti Bhaskar
 
Workforce planning
byDr Kiran Kakade
 
Succession planning workshop
byBeth Armknecht Miller, CMC
 
Human Capital Management
byTalwandi Sabo Power Limited
 
Employee Hiring PowerPoint Presentation Slides
bySlideTeam
 
A Comprehensive Project Report on HRIS
byRadhika Gohel
 
Recruitment Strategy.pptx
byYodhia Antariksa
 
Questionnaire on Performance Management System
byHR at VASHI ELECTRICALS PVT. LTD.
 
Succession Planning , objectives and steps
bydeepmalasingh50
 
Assignment on Human Resource Management
byMd Naim Hasan Towhid
 
Study on effectiveness of training and development
byAnoop Voyager
 
Performance management survey
byChandrakant Varma
 
Employee health, safety and security
byBibin Ssb
 
Recognition and Reward Resource Guide
byshershenow
 
Talent management
byyamini-reddy
 
KPI for Human Resource Management
bySCS universal
 
HR SWOT Analysis: Introduce effective HR Management
byCreativeHRM
 
Questionnaire on recruitment and selection
byinstitute of Business management and Research
 
MBA HR PROJECT REPORT ON TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
bySaid Salim Palayi
 

Viewers also liked

DOCX
Finaldocumentation
byasuadma
 
PDF
14072016
byDhwani Sanghavi
 
DOCX
Pooja MBA (2015-2017)
byPooja Singh
 
PDF
Energy Audit A Case Study of Pashupati Candle filter Udhyog And Country foo...
byBikram Dahal
 
DOC
Talent mnagement- MBA(HR) project
byAmol30586
 
DOCX
Business proposal
byRuchi Ponia
 
DOCX
Project (Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION)
byPranty
 
PDF
J_Mirza - Extracts from Research Proposal on Business Location Decisions (Lit...
byJunaid Mirza
 
DOC
A project report on depository system
byProjects Kart
 
PDF
Relationship Marketing In B2 B Marketing.
byPriyankkumar Patel
 
PDF
50673202 project-on-recruitment-and-selection-process
byRuna Dhruv
 
PDF
3 pma salehuddin - resource and project management
byCapt(Rtd) Salehuddin Abdul Kadir
 
PDF
Green Building Rating Systems and the Role of the Project Manager
byDavis Ciprikis
 
DOCX
‘Human resources recuritment’ project report
byAccurate Institute of Advanced Management
 
PDF
Human Resource Management System
byAdam Waheed
 
PDF
Pm study project risk management test
byAbdullah Ahmed, PMP, RMP
 
DOCX
FINAL YEAR PROJECT
byprince mpwiniza
 
PDF
A PROJECT REPORT ON SELECTION AND RECRUITMENT
byShakti Prasad Tiwari
 
PPTX
Market Research Proposal - Capturing the Rural Market for Personal and Househ...
byAakriti Agarwal
 
DOCX
Human Resource Management Of KFC
byhiteshkrohra
 
Finaldocumentation
byasuadma
 
14072016
byDhwani Sanghavi
 
Pooja MBA (2015-2017)
byPooja Singh
 
Energy Audit A Case Study of Pashupati Candle filter Udhyog And Country foo...
byBikram Dahal
 
Talent mnagement- MBA(HR) project
byAmol30586
 
Business proposal
byRuchi Ponia
 
Project (Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION)
byPranty
 
J_Mirza - Extracts from Research Proposal on Business Location Decisions (Lit...
byJunaid Mirza
 
A project report on depository system
byProjects Kart
 
Relationship Marketing In B2 B Marketing.
byPriyankkumar Patel
 
50673202 project-on-recruitment-and-selection-process
byRuna Dhruv
 
3 pma salehuddin - resource and project management
byCapt(Rtd) Salehuddin Abdul Kadir
 
Green Building Rating Systems and the Role of the Project Manager
byDavis Ciprikis
 
‘Human resources recuritment’ project report
byAccurate Institute of Advanced Management
 
Human Resource Management System
byAdam Waheed
 
Pm study project risk management test
byAbdullah Ahmed, PMP, RMP
 
FINAL YEAR PROJECT
byprince mpwiniza
 
A PROJECT REPORT ON SELECTION AND RECRUITMENT
byShakti Prasad Tiwari
 
Market Research Proposal - Capturing the Rural Market for Personal and Househ...
byAakriti Agarwal
 
Human Resource Management Of KFC
byhiteshkrohra
 

Similar to Effectiveness of Reqruitment and Selection System and Shared leadership and its impsct on Team Effectiveness

PDF
Recruitment strategies managing_effecting_the_recruitment_process
byConfidential
 
PDF
An Empirical Analysis Of Recruitment And Selection Practices In The Public Se...
byDarian Pruitt
 
DOCX
RUNNING HEAD Dynamic OrganizationsDynamic Organizations15.docx
byjoellemurphey
 
PDF
Recruiting Strategies
byVijay Rajkumar
 
PDF
Recruitment and selection which is relevant to the HRM
byLasanthaDeSilva4
 
PDF
1122 pakistan, Effectiveness of Human Resource practices
byFaris Ijaz
 
PPTX
4 - Planning Jobs.pptx
byUmairSohail17
 
PDF
Unlocking Talent The Role of Recruitment in Human Resource Management.pdf
byAlliance Recruitment Agency - Staffing Agency In California, Esplanade Avenue, Pacifica, CA, USA
 
DOC
A study on Recruitment and selection aT Paisabazaar.com.DOC
byShivNandan21
 
PDF
3rd-4th week RECRUITMENT and SELECTION.pdf
byMessQSilva
 
DOCX
an evaluation of recruitment and selection practices in a water utility company
byChisha Honest
 
PDF
21791869 recruitment-selection-process-project-report
byMuddassir Karnolwal
 
DOCX
Ud44132 bhu52973 983173_essay on acquiring human resources - aiu(final)
byDonasian Mbonea
 
PDF
Effective recruitment and selection procedures an analytical study based on p...
byAlexander Decker
 
DOCX
Hr recruitment
byGarry Sandhu
 
PDF
978-3-330-01366-7
bySaiful Islam Munna
 
DOC
Edited final reportseema kumari 9888546117
byIcaii Infotech
 
DOCX
Recruitment and selection
byJai Yadav
 
PDF
Hr recruitment and selection process in reliance communication
bysaranya mano
 
DOCX
Recruitment and selection process synopsis
byNesar Ahmad
 
Recruitment strategies managing_effecting_the_recruitment_process
byConfidential
 
An Empirical Analysis Of Recruitment And Selection Practices In The Public Se...
byDarian Pruitt
 
RUNNING HEAD Dynamic OrganizationsDynamic Organizations15.docx
byjoellemurphey
 
Recruiting Strategies
byVijay Rajkumar
 
Recruitment and selection which is relevant to the HRM
byLasanthaDeSilva4
 
1122 pakistan, Effectiveness of Human Resource practices
byFaris Ijaz
 
4 - Planning Jobs.pptx
byUmairSohail17
 
Unlocking Talent The Role of Recruitment in Human Resource Management.pdf
byAlliance Recruitment Agency - Staffing Agency In California, Esplanade Avenue, Pacifica, CA, USA
 
A study on Recruitment and selection aT Paisabazaar.com.DOC
byShivNandan21
 
3rd-4th week RECRUITMENT and SELECTION.pdf
byMessQSilva
 
an evaluation of recruitment and selection practices in a water utility company
byChisha Honest
 
21791869 recruitment-selection-process-project-report
byMuddassir Karnolwal
 
Ud44132 bhu52973 983173_essay on acquiring human resources - aiu(final)
byDonasian Mbonea
 
Effective recruitment and selection procedures an analytical study based on p...
byAlexander Decker
 
Hr recruitment
byGarry Sandhu
 
978-3-330-01366-7
bySaiful Islam Munna
 
Edited final reportseema kumari 9888546117
byIcaii Infotech
 
Recruitment and selection
byJai Yadav
 
Hr recruitment and selection process in reliance communication
bysaranya mano
 
Recruitment and selection process synopsis
byNesar Ahmad
 

More from Asad Abbas

DOCX
final case report IO
byAsad Abbas
 
DOCX
All Reports Psychological Testing and Assessment
byAsad Abbas
 
DOCX
Research Project
byAsad Abbas
 
DOCX
BNS Lab reports
byAsad Abbas
 
DOCX
BNS Lab reports
byAsad Abbas
 
DOCX
Research Project
byAsad Abbas
 
final case report IO
byAsad Abbas
 
All Reports Psychological Testing and Assessment
byAsad Abbas
 
Research Project
byAsad Abbas
 
BNS Lab reports
byAsad Abbas
 
BNS Lab reports
byAsad Abbas
 
Research Project
byAsad Abbas
 
In this document
Powered by AI

Study evaluates recruitment/selection at Atlas Honda, highlights effective practices and challenges faced in HR.

Discusses processes in recruitment/selection and their impact on organizational performance and HR management.

Analyzes stages of recruitment including job analysis and effectiveness of different recruitment methods.

Explores various methods and technologies employed in recruitment, focusing on effectiveness and innovation.

Identifies challenges faced during recruitment, including poor planning, talent shortage, and competition.

Details on recruitment practices specific to Honda, emphasizing policy, methods, and challenges identified.

Highlights the selection criteria and evaluation techniques used, stressing the importance of fit and performance.

Examines leadership dynamics within teams and the significance of shared leadership for team effectiveness.

Explores collaborative leadership in teams, highlighting the importance of shared leadership for effectiveness.

Explores collaborative leadership in teams, highlighting the importance of shared leadership for effectiveness.Describes the research design for assessing recruitment and selection at Honda, including participant demographics.

Presents key findings regarding policies, practices, and the effectiveness of recruitment strategies at Honda.

Discusses challenges and perceptions of recruitment and selection effectiveness based on participant responses.

Investigates how recruitment practices influence employee performance and overall organizational effectiveness.

Proposes recommendations for improving recruitment processes and enhancing selection practices for better outcomes.

Explores shared leadership concept, its definition, implications for team dynamics and effectiveness in organizations.

Discusses measurement aspects of team effectiveness and shared leadership, highlighting components relevant to performance.

Summarizes findings on recruitment effectiveness, shared leadership dynamics, and implications for organizational success.

Effectiveness of Reqruitment and Selection System and Shared leadership and its impsct on Team Effectiveness

  • 1.
    1 Abstract The purpose ofthis study was to assess the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection system of Atlas Honda Motor Company Sheikhupura, Pakistan. It was to find out the recruitment and selection system of Honda Company, the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection practices the challenges associated with the recruitment and selection practices of Honda Company and ways to help improve human resource planning and development. The study obtained information from HR Manager and 20 employees including supervisors and operators through the use of questionnaires. The results indicated that, advertising of job vacancies and employee referrals are mostly the mode for recruiting potential employees, it was also realized that the method used in the recruiting and selection process was very effective and moreover helped improve employee performance, the study revealed that the selecting and recruitment process are also characterized with lots of challenges. Among the recommendations made were that potential employees should all be treated fairly in the recruitment and selection process, more so employees must be appraised constantly to ensure that they improve upon their performance.
  • 2.
    2 Chapter I Introduction This casestudy was conducted to assess the effectiveness of recruitment and selection system of Atlas Honda Company Sheikhupura. The success of organizations in this modern business environment depends on the calibre of the manpower that steers the day to day affairs of the organizations. The process of recruiting and selecting all categories of employees into both private and public companies has been a matter of concern to many and needs attention. Even though it is the wish of every organization to attract the best human resource in order to channel their collective effort into excellent performances, unconventional selection practices can mar any business plan. The success of a business or an organization is directly linked to the performance of those who work for that business. Underachievement can be a result of workplace failures. Because hiring the wrong people or failing to anticipate fluctuations in hiring needs can be costly, it is important that conscious efforts are put into human resource planning. 1.1 The Concept of Recruitment and Selection According to Costello (2006) recruitment is described as the set of activities and processes used to legally obtain a sufficient number of qualified people at the right place and time so that the people and the organization can select each other in their own best short and long term interests. In other words, the recruitment process provides the organization with a pool of potentially qualified job candidates from which judicious selection can be made to fill vacancies. Successful recruitment begins with proper employment planning and forecasting. In this phase of the staffing process, an
  • 3.
    3 organization formulates plansto fill or eliminate future job openings based on an analysis of future needs, the talent available within and outside of the organization, and the current and anticipated resources that can be expanded to attract and retain such talent. Also related to the success of a recruitment process are the strategies an organization is prepared to employ in order to identify and select the best candidates for its developing pool of human resources. Organizations seeking recruits for base-level entry positions often require minimum qualifications and experiences. These applicants are usually recent high school or university/technical college graduates many of whom have not yet made clear decisions about future careers or are contemplating engaging in advanced academic activity. At the middle levels, senior administrative, technical and junior executive positions are often filled internally. The push for scarce, high-quality talent, often recruited from external sources, has usually been at the senior executive levels. Most organizations utilize both mechanisms to effect recruitment to all levels. The focus of recruitment and selection according to Montgomery (1996) is on matching the capabilities and inclinations of prospective candidates against the demands and rewards inherent in a given job. Jovanovic (2004) said recruitment is a process of attracting a pool of high quality applicants so as to select the best among them. For this reason, top performing companies devoted considerable resources and energy to creating high quality selection systems. Recruitment and selection process are important practices for human resource management, and are crucial in affecting organizational success Jovanovic (2004). Due to the fact that organizations are always fortified by information technology to be more competitive, it is natural to also consider utilizing this technology to re-organize the
  • 4.
    4 traditional recruitment andselection process through proper decision techniques, with that both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the processes can be increased and the quality of the recruitment and selection decision improved. A human resource information system is a system exploited to acquire, store, manipulate, analyse, retrieve, and distribute relevant information regarding an organization's human resources (Huselid, 1995). The purpose of the system is to support human resource services from the strategic level down to the tactical and operational levels. Many decision-making problems, including recruitment and selection, are herein involved. The system facilitates automated or computerized procedures to solve the problems, and is of vital importance as an aggressive tool in the information age. Researchers indicate that effective recruitment practices and policies enable boards to find the best candidate for their organization. The personnel function becomes especially important when recruiting and selecting new administrators. A critical role for human resource management is how to elicit positive reactions from candidates when discussing administrative roles. When opportunities are presented to employees to move towards careers in administration (i.e., tapping shoulders of potential candidates), often a negative reaction occurs. People without administrative experiences have negative perceptions and views of the role of the administrator. In attempts to attract and support individuals to the administrator’s position it is necessary to identify what barriers prevent potential candidates from applying to the pool. Job complexity and workload are perceived by employees as the two considerations having had the greatest impact on the number of applicants for administrative positions. Other factors include poor remuneration as it relates to demands and expectations of the job and lack of resources
  • 5.
    5 and support structuresin. Many highly qualified, competent, and talented employees dismiss careers in administration because they do not want to sit in an office all day. Until some alternative image is understood, or at least some support and resources put in place, a problem of pre-screening and identification will not likely improve (Mullins, 1999). 1.2 Recruitment and Selection Process and Development of the Organization Recruitment and selection forms a core part of the central activities underlying human resource management: namely, the acquisition, development and reward of workers. It frequently forms an important part of the work of human resource managers – or designated specialists within work organizations. However, and importantly, recruitment and selection decisions are often for good reason taken by non-specialists, by the line managers. There is, therefore, an important sense in which it is the responsibility of all managers, and where human resource departments exist, it may be that HR managers play more of a supporting advisory role to those people who will supervise or in other ways work with the new employee. Recruitment and selection also has an important role to play in ensuring worker performance and positive organizational outcomes. It is often claimed that selection of workers occurs not just to replace departing employees or add to a workforce but rather aims to put in place workers who can perform at a high level and demonstrate commitment (Dessler, 2000). Recruitment and selection is a topical area. While it has always had the capacity to form a key part of the process of managing and leading people as a routine part of
  • 6.
    6 organizational life, itis suggested here that recruitment and selection has become ever more important as organizations increasingly regard their workforce as a source of competitive advantage. Of course, not all employers engage with this proposition even at the rhetorical level. However, there is evidence of increased interest in the utilization of employee selection methods which are valid, reliable and fair. Mullins (1999) indicated that to be a high performing organization, human resource management must be able to assist the organization to place the right person in the right job. The human resource management practices include recruitment, selection, placement, evaluation, training and development, compensation and benefits, and retention of the employees of an organization. Businesses have developed human resource information systems that support: (i) recruitment, selection, and hiring, (ii) job placement, (iii) performance appraisals, (iv) employee benefits analysis, (v) training and development, and (vi) health, safety, and security. The first few activities of human resource management are recruiting and selecting which deal with the actions concerned, and the recruiting is also less frequently alerted in human resource information system recently. Besides, e-recruitment on the web being the current trend for the recruitment and selection processes can further distinguish many activities of the processes. Dessler (2000) lists the essence of these in the following; build a pool of candidates for the job, have the applicants fill out application forms, utilize various selection techniques to identify viable job candidates, send one or more viable job candidates to their supervisor, have the candidate(s) go through selection interviews, and determine to which candidate(s) an offer should be made.
  • 7.
    7 1.2.1 The Processof Recruitment Odiorne (1984) indicated that the quality of new recruits depends upon an organization's recruitment practices, and that the relative effectiveness of the selection phase is inherently dependent upon the calibre of candidates attracted. Indeed Smith et al. (1989) argue that the more effectively the recruitment stage is carried out, the less important the actual selection process becomes. When an organization makes the decision to fill an existing vacancy through recruitment, the first stage in the process involves conducting a comprehensive job analysis. This may already have been conducted through the human resource planning process, particularly where recruitment is a relatively frequent occurrence. Once a job analysis has been conducted, the organization has a clear indication of the particular requirements of the job, where that job fits into the overall organization structure, and can then begin the process of recruitment to attract suitable candidates for the particular vacancy. According to Odiorne, (1984) one result of effective recruitment and selection is reduced labour turnover and good employee morale. Recruiting ineffectively is costly, since poor recruits may perform badly and/or leave their employment, thus requiring further recruitment. In a cross national study of recruitment practices, suggests that, in reality, recruitment practices involve little or no attempt to validate practices. Personnel managers tend to rely on feedback from line managers and probationary periods and disciplinary procedures to weed out mistakes. Firms with high quit rates live with them and tend to build them into their recruitment practices and they do not analyze the constitution of their labour turnover.
  • 8.
    8 A number ofrecent studies have suggested that some recruitment methods are more effective than others in terms of the value of the employees recruited. Miyake, (2002) indicated that while advertising is usual for job vacancies, applicants were sometimes recruited by word of mouth, through existing employees. Besides being cheaper, the “grapevine” finds employees who stay longer (low voluntary turnover) and who are less likely to be dismissed (low involuntary turnover). People recruited by word of mouth stay longer because they have a clearer idea of what the job really involves. Miyake, (2002) reviewed five studies in which average labour turnover of those recruited by advertising was 51 per cent. The labour turnover for spontaneous applicants was 37 per cent and turnover for applicants recommended by existing employees was 30 per cent. One hypothesis proposed to account for this was the “better information” hypothesis. It was argued that people who were suggested by other employees were better and more realistically informed about the job than those who applied through newspapers and agencies. Thus, they were in a better position to assess their own suitability. Better informed candidates are likely to have a more realistic view of the job, culture of the organization and job prospects. Burack, (1985) argues that recruitment sources are significantly linked to differences in employee performance, turnover, satisfaction and organizational commitment. In a survey of 201 large US companies, Burack asked respondents to rate the effectiveness of nine recruitment sources in yielding high-quality, high-performing employees. The three top ranked sources were employee referrals, college recruiting and executive search firms. However, Burack, (1985) cautions that, while these general results are useful, there is a need for greater internal analysis of the relative quality of recruits yielded by different sources.
  • 9.
    9 In a studyassessing the recruitment of new graduates, Kersley et al (1997) reiterated the anticipatory socialization stage for students planning to enter professions, and in particular the effects of recruitment and selection experiences on career expectations and orientation. They agreed that the nature of students’ job search activity, the possession of relevant work experience, and exposure to employers through recruitment and selection activities may form part of the “evolving sequence of a person’s work experiences” which contributes to anticipatory socialization. It has been argued that exposure to employers through recruitment and selection is a social process where employers and potential employees gradually perceive a match. Through job search activities and awareness of employers’ recruitment literature and events, students gather information about organization’s goals, values, climate and work practices to guide their ultimate decision. Exposure to selection procedures provides information about the culture and attributes of an organization, and candidates form judgments from their perceptions of the fairness of the selection methods used. Delery and Doty (1996) argued that providing students with greater awareness of employment opportunities, and equipping them with the ability to be proactive in approaching potential employers, will lead to more effective career self-management and selection processes. There is also evidence that employers prefer graduates with a broader range of skills than just academic knowledge and greater appreciation of business needs both of which can be gained through work experience and awareness of employers’ recruitment and selection procedures. Using a sample of students in two traditional and one emerging profession (law, accountancy and human resource Management), the study examined the extent of career-related pre-employment work, recruitment and selection experiences and
  • 10.
    10 the relationship betweenthese experiences and career expectations. The focus on professions reflects the expectation that anticipatory socialization is likely to be greater amongst these students. Although most students in their final years of university training will have had some contact with potential employers, students in dedicated professional courses are likely to be provided with information earlier in their training about potential employment in the profession. This is partly because of the prescribed nature of the degree, the mandatory post-degree training required for membership of the professional institute, unlike the problems identified in general degree courses, because lecturers are likely to have closer ties to the practicing profession. Students in traditional professions, therefore, are exposed earlier to the values of the profession, such as a commitment to client service and a professional code of conduct. The mandatory nature of this training also makes it likely that such a socialization process persists despite idiosyncratic events within a profession; for example, recent concerns with corporate governance within accountancy which may have adversely affected the attractiveness of the profession for students and hence may impact recruitment into the profession (Burack , 1985). 1.3 The Selection Decision While the calibre of candidate is determined by the value of the recruitment process, the selection decision remains a difficult one. Gould, (1984) argues that most mistakes are caused by the fact that managers generally give little thought to the critical nature of the decisions. Employers are surprised and disappointed when an appointment fails, and often the person appointed is blamed rather than recognizing the weaknesses in the process and methodology, even the soundest of techniques and best practice (in
  • 11.
    11 selection) contain scopefor error. Some of this is due to the methods themselves, but the main source is the frailty of the human decision makers. Selection tools available to organizations can be characterized along a continuum that ranges from the more traditional methods of interviews, application forms and references, through to the more sophisticated techniques that encapsulate biographical data, aptitude tests, assessment centers, work samples, psychological testing, and so forth. Each method of selection has its advantages and disadvantages and comparing their rival claims involves comparing each method's merit and psychometric properties. The degree to which a selection technique is perceived as effective and perhaps sophisticated is determined by its reliability and validity. In a comparison of personnel selection practices in seven European countries explored the utilization of a range of established selection methods. They reported a general trend towards structured interviews in all countries and, while the general validity and acceptability of methods such as work samples, group exercises and assessment centres were widely recognized, reported usage of these methods was infrequent (Miyake, 2002). Clear differences in the frequency of the use of several selection methods did emerge from the study which reported, among others, the very high take-up of references and assessment centers in both the UK and Germany, the high, almost exclusive, frequency of graphology in France, and the limited use of testing and biographical inventories amongst all respondents. In his study of recruitment and selection practices in the USA, Burton (2001) found that approximately 25 per cent of respondent organizations conducted validation studies on their selection methods. Furthermore, in a rating of various selection methods, those perceived to be above average in their ability to
  • 12.
    12 predict employees' jobperformance included work samples, references/recommendations, unstructured interviews, structured interviews and assessment centres. Cran (1995) suggests that developments in the realm of selection lend some support to those who propound the HRM thesis, where a key feature has been the increase in testing designed explicitly to assess behavioral and attitudinal characteristics. He further indicates that the extent to which these more sophisticated and systematic approaches can be, and are, deployed, depends to a large degree, on sectoral circumstances and on the wider employment-management policies being pursued. 1.4 Recruiting Sources/Methods Researchers face many decisions when selecting recruitment methods. Issues to consider include the type of sample (random or convenience), cost, ease, participant time demands (e.g., total time, days of week, and time of day), and efficiency (e.g., staff hours per recruited participant). Researchers have a number of methods from which to choose, including advertising, direct mail, and telephone. Advertising can be used both to publicize a study and to recruit participants. Recruitment via advertising has the advantages of low cost and convenience, but the samples are non-random and often highly motivated, and youth may be especially hard to reach this way. Recruitment via mail is also low in cost and convenient, but youth are difficult to reach by mail and return rates tend to be low. An added problem with mail requests or surveys is that one can never be certain who completed the request/survey (Armstrong, 1991). Institutions or events (such as medical offices, schools, community sports organizations, health fairs, community events, and churches) often are used as a setting for recruitment. Schools present a promising avenue for the recruitment and assessment of youth. Their primary
  • 13.
    13 advantage is thatthey house a large number of children in one place and present a captive audience, although parental consent usually is still required. However, recruitment of participants from schools may meet resistance from school administrations for political or practical reasons. Additionally, recruitment at schools may not achieve the goal of sample representativeness as student characteristics vary between different types of schools (e.g., private vs. public) and between schools in different neighborhoods. Recruitment at schools may not be appropriate in studies having a family or neighborhood context, requiring a greater dispersal of participants from a larger area, or focusing on data collection in the home. Door-to-door recruitment is another option. For large studies, this recruitment method can be costly in terms of staff time and travel expenses, and it is difficult to assure that recruiters randomly sample homes. Despite these concerns, door- to-door recruitment may be a necessary recruitment strategy for certain potential participants (e.g., those who do not have a residential phone) (French, 1982). Telephone recruitment has an important advantage over these methods in that it can be used, in a fairly straightforward way, to randomly select respondents from the larger population. The telephone provides a relatively low-cost, effective means of contacting many households, as is often required for large-scale etiological research, and of making a quick determination of eligibility and willingness to participate in the study. Disadvantages of the telephone method include its limitation to households with telephones, the problems of missing or changed phone numbers, challenges presented by technology (such as answering machines or caller ID) that complicate the ability to reach people, and relatively easy refusal or termination of the conversation by unwilling respondents. Perhaps the largest problem with telephone contact methods involves rates
  • 14.
    14 of non-response. Kaplanand Norton (2004) found that the number of people who refused to provide screening information tended to be higher by telephone than in person. However, refusals over the telephone tend to be less likely than with mailed surveys (Kelly, 2006). It should be noted that telephone methods can be used not only for recruitment, but also for data collection. Recent advances in telephone survey methodology have made telephone recruitment and surveying an increasingly attractive option in many research fields (Kaplan & Norton, 2004). Random digit dialing, which involves calling numbers completely at random (since the digits are randomized), is used mostly in household survey research. Other systems, such as computer-assisted telephone interview programs, are used in marketing research and can be adapted for telephone recruiting and data collection in studies requiring specific samples. Working from an appropriate database of phone listings, the system, computer-assisted telephone interview can be used to select and queue numbers randomly, set specific quotas on key respondent variables (e.g., age, sex), and keep track of interviewer productivity and call outcomes. Job posting refers to the practice of publicizing an open job to employees (often by literally posting it on bulletin boards) and listing its attributes, such as criteria of knowledge, qualification, skill and experience. The purpose of posting vacancies is to bring to the attention of all interested persons (inside or out of the organization) the jobs that are to be filled. An organization needs to analyze the benefits and disadvantages of recruiting its personnel through internal or external sources and, where the latter is selected, whether formal or informal systems should be used. There are sound reasons for recruiting from sources within the organization:
  • 15.
    15 The ability ofthe recruit is known so it is easy to assess potential for the next level. By contrast, assessments of external recruits are based on less reliable sources, such as references, and relatively brief encounters, such as interviews. • “Insiders” know the organization, its strengths and weaknesses, its culture and, most of all, its people. Promotions from within build motivation and a sense of commitment to the organization. Skilled and ambitious employees are more likely to become involved in developmental activities if they believe that these activities will lead to promotion. Internal recruitment is cheaper and quicker than advertising in various media and interviewing “outsiders”. Time spent in training and socialization is also reduced. At the same time, several disadvantages exist: Sometimes it is difficult to find the “right” candidate within and the organization may settle for an employee who possesses a less than ideal mix of competencies. If the vacancies are being caused by rapid expansion of the organization there may be an insufficient supply of qualified individuals above the entry level. This may result in people being promoted before they are ready, or not being allowed to stay in a position long enough to learn how to do the job well. Infighting, inbreeding, and a shortage of varied perspectives and interests may reduce organizational flexibility and growth, and resistance to change by those who have an interest in maintaining the status quo may present long term problems. In times of rapid growth and during transitions, the organization may promote from within into managerial positions, regardless of the qualifications of incumbents.
  • 16.
    16 Transition activities andrapid organizational growth often mask managerial deficiencies; it is not until the growth rate slows that the deficiencies become apparent and, then, the organization finds it difficult, if not impossible, to undo the damage. The resulting cost of remedial training can prove prohibitive. Recruitment procedures need not be limited to one method. It is possible and often desirable to combine methods to enhance the recruitment success of a particular project. For example, use of focus groups and pilot studies that involve the community and pre-recruitment publicity can lead to higher rates of consent (Drucker, 1999). From the above, the sources of recruitment and selection are through advertising, via the internet and so forth. However recruitment and selection is faced with lots of challenges. 1.5 Challenges of Recruitment and Selection According to Kaplan and Norton, (2004) a common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning. Rigorous HR planning translates business strategies into specific HRM policies and practices. This is particularly so with recruitment and selection policies and practices. The key goal of HR planning is to get the right number of people with the right skills, experience and competencies in the right jobs at the right time at the right cost. Detailed and robust recruitment and selection policies, such as recruitment and selection procedures, assessing criteria, talents auditing and processing the information about the labour market are important in recruiting and deploying appropriate employees at the right time. Past research shows that the competency level of HR managers has a major influence on recruitment and selection and experienced HR experts within the HR department will not only shorten vacancy duration, but also
  • 17.
    17 improve the qualityof the applicants. Moreover, effective recruitment and selection is possible only if there is a dedicated and competent HR team (Kaplan and Norton, 2004) In the strategy implementation phase, the extent of recruitment and selection strategic integration can be gauged through four distinctive indicators. These indicators are: the timely supply of an adequately qualified workforce, effective job analysis and descriptions, effective selection, and the involvement of line managers in the recruitment and selection practices. A key source of uncertainty in the business strategy implementation is whether there is a timely supply of adequate qualified people, and to a great extent this uncertainty involves the quality of employees. For instance, a firm might decide to leverage a different human capital pool in terms of skills and education level than its rival firms as a competitive strategy even within the same industry to develop specific capabilities or to develop a HR process advantage. An organization can successfully eliminate this uncertainty if its recruitment and selection policies and practices are strategically integrated with business (Whitmell Associates, 2004). Effectively conducting job analysis and targeting right potential candidates ensures a good match between applicants and the jobs. Argument has been given that under qualified employees may not able to effectively perform their job positions due to lack of knowledge and competencies, while on the other hand over qualified employees tend to experience less job satisfaction due to their higher qualification than a desired level for a given job. For every job in the organization, a thorough job analysis, which includes job description and job specifications, is necessary and based on this, an appropriate selection criteria is vital. The job description provides indications of the duties to be undertaken, and the job specification usually prescribes relevant personal
  • 18.
    18 qualities and attitudesas well as skills and knowledge required for the job (Johnston, 1999). A range of methods, such as application forms, interviews, formal tests, references, assessment centres and official transcripts are used by firms in the selection process. A firm needs to choose a method that is most appropriate to the job positions. HR experts generally drive the staffing process and the purpose of the staffing is to fulfill the requirements of business, and the skill levels presented by each new recruit is likely to be judged better if the line managers are involved in the recruitment and selection process. (Dess and Jason, 2001) suggest that in business strategy implementation the involvement of line managers in the entire staffing process (i.e., drafting of job descriptions, setting selection criteria and being on the panel of recruitment) is vital for ensuring recruitment and selection to meet business needs. In other words, the line managers are the owner of the recruitment and selection process along with HR playing a facilitator role. Scholars have argued that other key issues and controversies run through analyses of human resource management and recruitment and selection: efficiency, control, and the difficulty of orienting practice towards social justice are often cited. The first two problematic, as (Burton, 2001) notes, have been central to the management of people for as long as managers have been present in organizations. The latter is also common across all organizations, but is a particular academic and policy concern for smaller or growing organizations (Burton, 2001). In recruitment and selection practice the construction of formalized selection frameworks and norms of acceptable discrimination may be seen as an attempt to enable managers to navigate between efficiency, control and social justice.
  • 19.
    19 In their adviceon how to achieve the perfect fit of person, organization and job, they argue that selecting on the basis of managerial opinion is ‘utterly unscientific and unreliable and that managers are ‘liable to be turned this way and that by the most inconsequential of considerations’. In place of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, these authors propose that physiognomy and the physical-self provide the key to ‘unlocking the inner secrets’ of the individual seeking employment, and therefore should inform the selection process. Managers are advised to assess nose, forehead, chin, habitual facial expression, digestion, skin texture, and elasticity of muscle as found in Blackford and Newcomb, 1914 early people management textbook. The underlying philosophy of this process is that everything about man indicates his character and as much information as possible should be collected to inform a decision - their list also includes religious belief and marital status. Taking heredity and environment as bases for granting or denying access to an organization and job is now legally unacceptable. The argument presented by Blackford and Newcomb (2002), particularly in relation to skin, color and its predictive properties, could be seen as a product of its time and place. However, it is important to note that the study is based on what was then seen as a sound scientific set of ideas and tests, which proved the premises underlying the suggested practice. Recruitment may be conducted internally through the promotion and transfer of existing personnel or through referrals, by current staff members, of friends and family members. Where internal recruitment is the chosen method of filling vacancies, job openings can be advertised by job posting, that is, a strategy of placing notices on manual and electronic bulletin boards, in company newsletters and through office memoranda.
  • 20.
    20 Referrals are usuallyword-of-mouth advertisements that are a low-cost-per-hire way of recruiting. Internal recruitment does not always produce the number or quality of personnel needed; in such an instance, the organization needs to recruit from external sources, either by encouraging walk-in applicants; advertising vacancies in newspapers, magazines and journals, and the visual and/or audio media; using employment agencies to “head hunt”; advertising on-line via the Internet; or through job fairs and the use of college recruitment. 1.6 The Changing Context of Recruitment and Selection Decisions Much of the recent literature on personnel management has emphasized the necessity for the recruitment and selection of employees who are committed to the goals of the organization. Recent waves of organizational restructuring have dramatically changed and, in many cases, destroyed existing employment relationships. As traditional autocratic structures flatten and organizations utilize multidisciplinary teams to remain competitive, the need for strategic and transparent systems becomes paramount (Bingley et al, 2004). Bingley et al, (2004) suggested that, increasingly, many organizations are being transformed from structures that are built on functions and jobs, to those where focused, self-directed work teams, made up of empowered individuals with diverse backgrounds, are replacing traditional specialized workers. Cran, (1995) highlighted that firms need adaptable people who can adjust to rapidly changing customer needs and operational structures, while Burton (2001) argues that employees, and the way they work, comprise the crucial difference between successful and unsuccessful organizations. He argues that
  • 21.
    21 as technology increasesand product life cycles shorten, the major source of competitive advantage will be the individual worker. Delery and Doty, (1996) further developed this view of the prevailing business environment and reiterated that: with the sweeping changes in today's business climate and the rise of re-engineering to meet the needs of organizations in the area of downsizing or cost diminution, (search) firms must be equipped to recruit individuals who can operate in a non-structured or “virtual” organization. Even in today's technically advanced business environment, the human factor will always be instrumental to the success of an organization. Furthermore, Drucker, (1999) indicates that, as companies downsize, “delayer” and try to boost productivity with fewer people, those that remain are being asked to assume more tasks, roles and responsibilities. He proposes that, as this trend continues, companies will be asking fewer employees to know more, do more, change more and interact more and thus interest is increasingly focused on identifying the recruiting sources that are most likely to yield high quality employees and the selection methods that best predict future job performance. Arguments such as these have led to suggestions that the critical organizational concern today is the hiring or promoting of the best qualified people while still meeting all regulatory requirements. A study commissioned by the IPD's Recruitment Forum highlighted a number of common failings in the recruitment and selection process. Included among these failings were: a) No obvious link with HR strategy, resourcing strategy and broader business and Organizational goals; b) Use of referencing for short listing; c) Unclear use of structured interview design and application; d) Increasing use of invalid prediction methods; e) Lack of widespread
  • 22.
    22 monitoring and lackof remedial action in those organizations that did monitor recruitment; f) Lack of validation of situation specific selection procedures. These results are suggestive of an inability or unwillingness to appreciate the strategic imperative of effective recruitment and selection practices. Smith and Robertson (1993) argue for greater precision in recruitment and selection and caution that a company can be dragged to its knees by the weight of ineffective staff which decades of ineffectual selection methods have allowed to accumulate. Smith and Robertson, (1993) further noted that the problem of inefficiency may be as a result of a difficulty in distinguishing good practice from common practice. Should this be the case then the problem may lie less with the processes utilised and more with the traditional perception of what constitutes effective, valid recruitment and selection practices. The traditional perspective on recruitment and selection assumed a rational framework, where the largely objective qualifications of the individual were matched to the requirements of the job (Stoner and Freeman, 1992). The assumptions of the rational model imply that those making the decisions have real knowledge about the job, real knowledge about the applicants' job relevant qualifications, can objectively compare these qualifications with the job demands and select the applicant with the best match. However, more recently, there is growing evidence to suggest that the notion of ‘fit’ as it relates to suitability has assumed heightened significance in organizational settings. Kersley et al, (1997), defines ‘fit’ as the degree to which the goals and values of the applicant match those of individuals considered successful in the organization. Kersley et al, (1997) further highlights this notion of fit as the key to job success: Think back in your career and ask yourself, of all the people you know who failed in a job and
  • 23.
    23 were terminated, howmany of them failed because they lacked the right educational degree, the right job experience, or the right industry background? In all likelihood, most of them failed because of inadequate interpersonal skills, an inability to communicate, or because they just didn't fit in with the culture; in other words bad chemistry. More specifically, (Armstrong, 1991) identify the “organizational chameleon” as a corporate creature who embodies the perfect fit in terms of organizational demands for values, beliefs, attitudes and so forth, while advocating that an organizational analysis be carried out prior to making staffing decisions to identify the dominant values, social skills, and personality traits required of potential job applicants. Such an approach challenges the rational model of recruitment and selection and brings into focus the “form versus substance” issue. According to (Armstrong, 1991), the core of this problem is associated with the difficulties involved in distinguishing candidates who are truly qualified (i.e. substance) from those who simply construct images of qualifications and competence (i.e. form). This problem is compounded in a situation where candidates actively seek to alter and manage images of competence, with the result that the decision maker is attempting to hit a moving, rather than a stationary, target. In an attempt to explain why the rational model has limited application in the current business environment, Delery and Doty, (1996) find three particular arguments: (1) In an increasingly competitive environment the content of jobs may change quickly over time, because of shifts in corporate strategies or technological innovations. Stable person/job match is unlikely in such unpredictable organizational environments. (2) The increasing use of self-managed teams makes it difficult to view individual jobs as the key unit of analysis. Team members may be given the responsibility of allocating tasks between members and
  • 24.
    24 engage in collectiveproblem-solving efforts that can be more meaningfully understood at the group level of analysis. (3) Research has documented that person/job match may not be sufficient to achieve high job satisfaction, commitment and job performance among employees. It is necessary also that employee hold values that are congruent with those of the organization. Delery and Doty, (1996) concluded that this requirement for ‘fit’ encapsulates the congruence of the personality traits, beliefs, and values of the employee with the culture, strategic needs, norms and values of the organization and thus reinforces the necessity for greater empirical evaluation of the mechanisms employed to measure such characteristics. 1.7 Recruitment and Selection Practices and Performance Recruitment, as a human resource management function, is one of the activities that impact most critically on the performance of an organization. While it is understood and accepted that poor recruitment decisions continue to affect organizational performance and limit goal achievement, it is best that much effort is put in the recruitment and selection practices (Randall, 1987). Recruitment and selection also has an important role to play in ensuring worker performance and positive organizational outcomes. It is often claimed that selection of workers occurs not just to replace departing employees or add to a workforce but rather aims to put in place workers who can perform at a high level and demonstrate commitment (Ballantyne, 2009). Recruitment and selection play a pivotally important role in shaping an organization’s effectiveness and performance, if work organizations are able to acquire workers who already possess relevant knowledge, skills and aptitudes
  • 25.
    25 and are alsoable to make an accurate prediction regarding their future abilities, recruiting and selecting staff in an effective manner can both avoid undesirable costs for example those associated with high staff turnover, poor performance and dissatisfied customers and engender a mutually beneficial employment relationship characterized, wherever possible, by high commitment on both sides. Pilbeam and Corbridge, (2006) provide a useful overview of potential positive and negative aspects noting that: ‘The recruitment and selection of employees is fundamental to the functioning of an organization, and there are compelling reasons for getting it right. Inappropriate selection decisions reduce organizational effectiveness, invalidate reward and development strategies, are frequently unfair on the individual recruit and can be distressing for managers who have to deal with unsuitable employees.’ Recruiting and selection is very important for the survival of every organization but that does not end there, new recruits need to be developed and appraised from time to time in order for them to be abreast with new trends and challenges. When employees are developed it help increase their performance and help sustain the growth of organizations. 1.8 Human Resource Development Companies can only succeed in the long-term if they recruit and motivate people who are able to respond to and shape the challenges of the future. These are the individuals with the capacity to create competitive advantage from the opportunities presented by changing markets, with the desire to learn from customers, consumers, suppliers and colleagues, and who possess the ability to build and influence long-lasting and effective partnerships (Walker, 1990). The recruitment of new employees helps to demonstrate a company’s aspirations, highlighting the skills and attitudes to which it
  • 26.
    26 attaches the highestpriority. The choice also provides a major opportunity to communicate the values and successes of the organization – to explain why the company offers the most attractive place for a person to develop their career. Yet this competition for top talent is nothing new; and if the challenge for HR managers is to spot the best people and win their favour (Walker, 1990). A well-prepared and motivated workforce is possibly the most important of the three intangible assets to support an organization’s value creating processes. According to Peter Drucker “The most valuable asset of a 20th century company was its production equipment. The most valuable asset of a 21st century institution will be its knowledge workers and their productivity (Drucker, 1999). A great deal exists in the literature about the provision of staff development and training as investment for organizations. Staff development and staff training are parts of the bigger concept of human resource development (HRD). Training is just one possible way to organize and implement learning processes in organizations and not always the most effective one. HRD encompasses the broad set of activities that improve the performance of the individual and teams, hence the organization. Training and development have come to be viewed as lifelong activity, rather than the front end acquisition of qualifications. As a result, the focus of concern has shifted from what the trainer does, to what the learner requires. The ultimate aim of the training and development process has been characterized as the creation of the learning organization, constantly reviewing its mistakes and successes and adapting its activities appropriately. The issues of workforce demographics, desirable characteristics of the workforce and the obstacles to achieving the workforce which is well prepared, motivated and strategically ready in today’s
  • 27.
    27 libraries, are keyelements to be considered when discussing human resource development. Some of the other issues/challenges confronting human resource managers in this context are: Do we hire for today’s needs or tomorrow’s? How can we hire for the future needs of the library? How do we go about providing human resource development for the needs of the organization as a whole, not just for the specific jobs people perform? These issues are not confined to libraries. Many other organizations are also trying to deal with these challenges. Until recently, the focus when hiring has been more on skills, for reference, cataloguing, IT and so on, rather than on attributes like strategic thinking, flexibility, adaptability and commitment to lifelong learning. There is a growing trend now to “hire for attributes and then train for the skills” (Whitmell Associates, 2004). The need to hire staff with abilities such as flexibility, adaptability, leadership potential and learning agility is increasingly recognized by human resource managers. The process of bringing in such changes to our workplaces is not straightforward as it affects the hiring process as well as staff development and training activities. To keep alive the principles of training and development, all related initiatives need to be integrated. Hiring, orientation, communication, performance reviews, and rewards and recognition are interrelated and therefore should be linked to each other and to the training and development programs. Recruitment of staff that is flexible, strategic thinkers, multi-skilled, open to change and responsive is not a simple, straightforward process as identification of individuals with these skills is not as easy as identification of those with cataloguing, reference or IT skills. Retaining these skilled people and ensuring that once hired, they are motivated and continue to enhance the skills and attributes they had when they joined
  • 28.
    28 the organization maypresent challenges for human resource managers. It requires creation of an environment within the organization to ensure these happen, in other words a “knowledge-based organization” equipped to deal with the constantly changing environment.
  • 29.
    29 Chapter II Method 2.1 ResearchDesign Theresearch was based on assessing recruitment and selection practices of Honda Company. Case study method was used. Case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. The design was a descriptive study which used both quantitative and qualitative tools to recruitment and selection practices adopted by Honda Company. 2.3 Participant Atlas Honda Motor Company Sheikhupura, Pakistan was selected for this case study. HR Manager and 20 other employees of the company were selected to gather data about the recruitment and selection system of the company. Mean age of the participants was 37 years. Average experience of the participants in the company was 9 years. 2.4 Assessment Measures 2.4.1 Demographic information questionnaire A demographic information questionnaire was formed particularly for this case study. The questionnaire inquired information like age, hometown, current city, education, marital status. Some questions related to personal history were also asked in that questionnaire. Through those questions, information about educational carrier, past working experience, designation and family background were asked.
  • 30.
    30 2.4.2 Self-developed Questionnaires Twoself-developed questionnaires was used, one for HR Manager and one for other employees. Questionnaire for employees consisted of 14 questions. Questionnaire for HR Manager consisted of 21 questions. Some questions were open ended and some were close ended. The researcher prepared the questionnaires to be responded by the sampled employees of the organization. The questions were designed to make the purpose of the study successful after the results have been ascertained. This instrument gave expected information about the recruitment and selection procedures or practices. 2.5 Procedure An initial meeting was held at office of the company, Faisalabad road, Sheikhupura. The purpose of the case study was explained to the HR Manager of the company and other participants to convince them for the case study before their permission. This meeting ended in 30 minutes. An authority letter was issued from institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore which also explained nature of the case study and request to give data. After three days researcher again visited the company to collect data. First of all consent was taken and demographic questionnaire was filled in by HR Manager. Then self-developed questionnaire for HR Manager was given and filled in, in the presence of researcher. Then permission was granted by HR Manager to collect data from employees. The participants were taken consent form first and researcher assured them that all collected data will be kept confidential. They was also given right to withdraw whenever they want. First, participants signed consent forms and then demographic questionnaire was filled in. After that self-developed questionnaire for employees were given to the participants to get information about recruitment and
  • 31.
    31 selection system ofthe company. The participants were relaxed and participated in the study with full attention. This session ended with in 40 minutes. Then data was analyzed and results presented. Table 1.1 Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Variables (Education, Marital Status, Family system, & Family background) of the Sample. Variables f % Education Intermediate 5 25 Graduation 12 60 Master 3 15 Marital Status Married 13 65 Unmarried 7 35 Family system Nuclear 11 55 Joint 9 5 Family Background Rural 5 25 Urban 15 75
  • 32.
    32 Chapter III Results 3.1 FormalPolicy for Recruitment and Selection of Employees The researcher wanted to know if the company had any formal policy for recruiting and selection of employees, responses are as follows; Out of 20 respondents, all agreed with the question, that the company had a formal policy for recruiting and selection of employees. Respondents were further asked to state this policy. Six (6) respondents sated that recruitment and selection is mainly an internal arrangement, the human resource department accesses the various departments where there are vacancies, the department then assesses staff requirements with those qualifying appointed to fill these vacancies. This assertion tallies with Smith et al (1989) that when an organization makes the decision to fill an existing vacancy through recruitment, the first stage in the process involves conducting a comprehensive job analysis. Once a job analysis has been conducted, the organization has a clear indication of the particular requirements of the job, where that job fits into the overall organization structure, and can then begin the process of recruitment to attract suitable candidates for the particular vacancy. Most companies first look within their ranks for such people after which suitable candidates from outside are invited. 3.2 Outline of Job Analysis This was to find out from respondents if the company outlines roles, duties and responsibilities for a particular job. From the total number of respondents, the majority of sixteen (16) representing 80% of the population answered in the affirmative that the
  • 33.
    33 company outlines jobanalysis like the roles, duties and responsibilities before advertising a vacant position. 20% of the population constituting respondents however answered in the negative that the company does not outline job analysis in terms of duties and responsibilities before advertising. From the discussion it is realized that the majority of respondents agreed with the statement that the company outlines job analysis before advertising. 3.4 Recruiting Agencies This was to find out from respondents if Honda Company relies on any recruitment agencies in the selection of employees. Answers from respondents are as follows; Out of twenty (20) respondents, all agreed that the company rely on recruiting agencies in the selection of employees. The researcher further wanted to know if existing employees are considered when there are vacancies, once again respondents agreed that existing employees are considered when vacancies are available. More so job vacancies are also made to the public depending on the requirements and number of people needed. 3.5 Methods of Recruitment by Honda Company In order to know the various types of methods used by Honda Company in selecting employees, this question was asked. Answers from respondents are as follows; Eight (8) respondents stated that the company uses newspaper adverts in adverting for jobs or as a recruitment section tool, respondents explained that newspapers are read by lots of people and therefore lots of people are covered. Five (5) respondents
  • 34.
    34 were of theopinion that the company uses employees’ referrals as a means of recruiting that is employees inform their friends and relations that the company has vacancies. Three respondents stated that the band relies on recruiting agencies in selecting employees for the company. Finally, four (4) respondents shared that another method of recruiting was through professional associations. According Armstrong, (1991) organizations and employers have a number of methods from which to choose, including advertising, employment agencies, and through direct mail. Advertising can be used to publicize and to recruit participants. Recruitment via advertising has the advantages of low cost and convenience according to Armstrong. Drucker, 1999 also stated that for organizations to get the best of employees recruitment procedures need not be limited to one method. It is possible and often desirable to combine methods to enhance the recruitment success of a particular project. In a related issue, respondents were asked if the company had a structured recruitment and selection practices for new employees, respondents had this to say; All twenty (20) respondents agreed that the company had structured recruitment and selection practices in place for new employees. Eleven (11) respondents agreed that one of such structures and selection practices was educational qualifications, thus one or potential employees should have the necessary educational qualification in order to be considered. An interview is another practice in the selection of new employees, all prospective employees must go through an interview process to be assessed, if the person involved is capable of the work to be done, five (5) respondents shared this view.
  • 35.
    35 Four (4) respondentsexplained that after the selection process through the interview, new employees are trained in the selected positions they were employed before they are fully allowed to start their new roles or jobs. 3.6 Selection Practices of Honda Company Related to the above respondents were asked which of the following were considered for recruitment and selection of employees, that is academic qualifications, work experience, interviews and tests. Out of twenty (20) respondents, eleven (11) agreed that tests are considered in selecting and employee, this is usually to test the general knowledge of prospective employees. Five (5) employees were of the opinion that work experience played an important role in the selection process as those with experience are considered to be the best for the job. Four respondents opted for interviews; they explained that interviews are conducted to test the ability of new employees and how convincing they are before being selected.
  • 36.
    36 The literature revealedthat a wide range of methods, such as application forms, interviews, formal tests, references, assessment centres and official transcripts are used by firms in the selection and recruitment process. An organization chooses a method that is most appropriate to the job positions. 3.7 Challenges of Recruiting and Selection Practices at Honda Company The researcher wanted to find out the challenges the department encounter in the recruiting and selecting of employee. Responses are as follows; One challenge facing recruitment and selection process at Honda Company is the availability of key talents in the job market for specialized areas within the company. Twelve (12) respondents constituting 60% of the population who shared this view stated that Honda as an institution needs key talents to help run the company and that is quite difficult to find in the job market. Seven (7) respondents representing 35% of the population were of the opinion that another challenge facing Honda in its recruitment and selection processes is competition from other institutions. Respondents explained that financial institutions in the country are spring up fast, and they are all recruiting the best in order to stay on top. Recruiting in this sense means competing with other institutions for the same human resource. Another challenge according to one (1) respondent constituting 5% of the population was labour turnover, the respondents explained that most employees leave the institution shortly after being offered an appointment which goes a long way to affect the company as money has to spent again in recruiting and selection process.
  • 37.
    37 According to Kaplanand Norton, 2004, in the literature review, a common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning but the analysis revealed that labour turnover; competition and lack of key talents are challenges that face recruitment and selection which could be beyond HR departments. 3.8 Factors to Help Improve Recruitment and Selection Practices at Honda Company Respondents were asked to give factors that will help improve recruitment and selection practices at Honda Company, answers are as follows; Three (3) respondents emphasized that vacancies should be advertised early and should be detailed enough for prospective applicants to assess themselves whether they can do the job required of them. Respondents reiterated that vacancies are not made public in time and the duties and roles are most often not properly specified. Twelve (12) respondents stated that the procedure for selection of potential employees should be strictly adhered to. Respondents explained that job requirement and its relevant experience should be adopted in the selection of new recruits which cost little and more so time saving as such people spends little or no time during orientation. Five (5) respondents stated that adequate background check on all potential employees should be the order of the day. Respondents explained that the department should not solely rely on the qualifications and experience but lifestyles and background of all would be employees should be checked to make sure the best is being recruited for the company.
  • 38.
    38 3.9 Effectiveness ofRecruitment and Selection Practices of the Honda Company This was to find out from respondents how effective the recruitment and selection practices of Honda Company, respondents were to choose one of the following; very effective, good, not effective, indifferent and bad as their answers. Out of a population of twenty (20), five (5) constituting 25% of the population were of the opinion that the selection and recruitment practices were very effective and that the right materials are employed for the company. Nine (9) respondents believed that the recruiting and selection practices were good, they explained that the methods needed for the right person to be employed are used. These respondents constituted 45% of the population. Three (3) respondents forming 30% of the population were of the opinion that the recruitment and selection practices of the company were not effective. They explained that these practices always give room to favouritism especially with employee referrals while some are employed without necessarily going through all the right procedures. Respondents were further asked if job vacancies are made or open to the general public, 80% respondents answered in the affirmative while 20% answered no, that job vacancies are not made public. Respondents were then asked to give the methods through which vacancies are made available, their answers are as follows;
  • 39.
    39 Seventeen (17) respondentsstated that the company uses newspaper adverts to advertise for job vacancies, preferable state owned newspapers are used for this. Eight (8) respondents stated that employee referrals are used in the selection of new employees. It is realized from figure 5 that responses are more than the number of sampled respondents, this is as a result of respondents selecting more than one response in relation to the question asked. 3.10 How Respondents were Selectedand Employed This was to find out from respondents how they were recruited and selected, thus by what means, answers from respondents are as follows; From the sample size of twenty (20), eight (8) were recruited after having served as national service personnel. Respondents stated that they got to know of the vacancies while serving as national service personnel. These respondents constituted 40% of the total population. Five (5) respondents who constituted 25% of the population wrote application letters to the company, they were shortlisted and invited for an interview. 20% of the population responded that they answered an advertisement in the dailies on positions that were vacant. Four (4) respondents in all agreed to this. Three (3) respondents constituting 15% of the population were employed or applied for jobs through employee referrals. Respondents stated that they were informed by their relatives and friends of vacant positions at the company which they applied for and were employed.
  • 40.
    40 From the discussionsand figure 6 above it is realized that National Testing Service play an important role in the selection process of the company in recruiting new employees followed by advertisement as the both constituted over 65% of the method used in the selection and recruitment process. 3.11 Recruitment and selection Practices and Performance This was to find out from respondents if the selection and recruitment practices had affected their performance, responses are as follows; Out of twenty (20) respondents, sixteen (16) answered that ‘yes’ the selection practices had affected their performance while just four (4) answered in the negative that it has not affected their performance. Respondents who answered in the affirmative explained that most of them would not have been able to perform their duties if not for the recruitment and selection methods. Others explained that the orientation and job training given them has added to their stock of knowledge. Respondents who answered ‘no’ explained that the selection and recruitment practices had no bearing on what they were doing at the moment; this makes their work difficult and hampers performance at work. The recruitment of new employees helps to demonstrate a company’s aspirations, highlighting the skills and attitudes to which it attaches the highest priority. Companies can only succeed in the long-term if they recruit and motivate people who are able to respond to and shape the challenges of the future. While at the same time employees can
  • 41.
    41 perform when theyare developed or given the needed attention to perform. Job orientation and training is not enough to enhance performance, motivation, feedback and appraisals can help improve performance (Walker, 1990). Respondents were further asked if there were equal opportunities for all potential employees, out of twenty respondents, thirteen (13) agreed that there were equal opportunity for all while seven (7) disagreed that there existed equal opportunity as some potential employees already know their fate before interviews are conducted, thus there is favouritism on the part of some would be employees. 3.12 Improving Recruitment and Selection Practices at Honda Company The researcher wanted to find out from respondents how recruitment and selection practices or processes could be improved at Honda Company, answers from respondents are as follows; The majority of twelve (12) respondents were of the opinion that all applicants should be given an equal opportunity of being selected and treated fairly while all favouritism and biases are eliminated to ensure that all get a fair chance of being selected and employed at the company. Five (5) respondents were of the opinion that the general public should be made aware through advertisement for all to apply while at the same time given an equal opportunity. Finally, three (3) respondents stated that job orientation and applicants with the right qualifications should be given the opportunity. Respondents explained that though
  • 42.
    42 job orientations areoften done for new recruits, qualification should be linked with the job. 3.14 Case formulation Atlas Honda Limited is a joint venture company between Atlas Group and Honda Motor Co. Ltd. Japan. The company is at the cutting-edge of technology in the vast field of auto engineering and is the largest manufacturer in Pakistan. Atlas Honda Sheikhupura plant is preparing motorbikes. At the Sheikhupura unit they are preparing four models CD70, Pridor, Cg125 and Deluxe. Mr. Saadullah Ejaz is HR Manager of the Sheikhupura plant. Honda Motor Co., Ltd. is a Japanese public multinational corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles and power equipment. Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second- largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. The company was incorporated in Pakistan on November 04, 1992 and joint venture agreement was signed on August 05, 1993. Miyake, (2002) indicated that advertising is usual for job vacancies, while some applicants are sometimes recruited by word of mouth, through existing employees (employee referrals). Besides being cheaper, people recruited by word of mouth stay longer because they have a clearer idea of what the job really involves. This assertion was
  • 43.
    43 shared by mostrespondents with regards to recruitment and selection practices at Honda Company. The research revealed that Honda Company policy or practice on recruiting and selection was based on several units; the first is the internal recruitment and invitations from applicants from the general public. The first is analysis of the various departments to find out if there are vacancies to be filled. The various departments search within its staff to find competent members to fill job vacancies. When that fails employee referrals are used where employees are allowed to recommend potential employees for the various departments. Some of the methods used in recruiting and selection of employees are through employee’s referrals, employment agencies, professional associations and through adverts in the various dailies. The research also revealed that the company had structured ways of selecting new employees. The first is that potential employees must have the necessary or right educational background before they qualify for an interview which is the next stage once a potential employee is shortlisted. Training and orientation is the next stage if an individual is selected or recruited. The analysis realized that 14% of the respondents were of the opinion that selection and recruiting practices were very effective as the right material are always employed, majority of respondents believed that these practices were good and they constituted 46%. It shows that 60% percent of the respondents agreed that these measures were effective. The other 30% were either indifferent or believed that these measures
  • 44.
    44 were not effectiveand the reasons raised included favouritism and bias towards potential employees. More so it was realized that factors such as work experience, academic qualifications, interviews and test used in selecting employees makes the selecting and recruitment practices very effective in selecting the best for the company. Randall, (1987) believes that recruitment, as a human resource management function, is one of the activities that impact most critically on the performance of an organization. This is because it is understood and accepted that poor recruitment decisions continue to affect organizational performance and limit goal achievement. The study revealed that recruitment and selection practices have improved performance of employees and the company, 80% of respondents stated that the selection and recruitment process has helped them improve upon their performance at the company and in what they do. It was also revealed that orientation and subsequent job training had added to their stock of knowledge of most employees which help them effectively carry out their duties. Respondents stated that the selection and recruiting method had led to the employment of competent staff while at the same time selection practices help give the chance to employ qualified candidates. In spite of the above some respondents were of the view that the recruitment and selection practices have not improved performance as orientation and job training are general and most often not linked with the job. A common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning. The key goal of HR planning is to get the right number of people with the right skills, experience
  • 45.
    45 and competencies inthe right jobs at the right time at the right cost. Detailed and robust recruitment and selection policies, such as recruitment and selection procedures, assessing criteria, talents auditing and processing the information about the labour market are important in recruiting and deploying appropriate employees at the right time. Despite the above it was realized that Honda Company is faced with other challenges in its recruitment and selection practices. The major challenge facing Honda Company in its recruiting and selection practices is lack of key talents in the job market for specialized areas within the bank. Honda Company as a financial institution deals in normal banking activities while massively involved in mortgaging which needs specialized skills in order to serve its customers and such skills from the study is lacking thereby affecting the performance of the company. Competition is another challenge Honda Company facing in its recruiting and selection practices. The financial market in the country is now very competitive thereby there is a rush for those with the experience and skills to help the various companiess float and have competitive advantage over others. This therefore makes the competition for skilled labour in the field difficult. Labour turnover is another challenge faced by Honda Company in its recruitment and selection practices. From the survey it was realized some employees immediately after employment vacate or leave their post and take on a different one leading to a loss to the bank, the challenge is therefore how to retain such employees once they are employed.
  • 46.
    46 The analysis revealedthat Honda Company has policies and practices with regards to recruiting and selection of employees, the following were given to help improve upon such practices. Respondents stated that the procedure for recruiting and selection should be strictly followed in order to ensure that the right materials are provided for the bank. Procedures such as educational or academic qualification, experience and interviews all help select the best of candidates for the company. More so, it was realized that equal opportunities should be given to all applicants who apply for jobs at company to help ensure fairness in the selection procedure and not to hand others undue advantage over others. Moreover it was realized that to make the selection and recruitment procedure complete qualifications should be stressed and should also be linked with the job to be done as most qualifications do not much the job to be done. 3.15 Conclusion The focus of recruitment and selection is to match the capabilities of prospective candidates against the demands and rewards inherent in a given job. For this reason, top performing companies devote considerable resources and energy to creating high quality selection systems. Recruitment and selection process are important practices for human resource management, and are crucial in affecting organizational success. The quality of new recruits depends upon an organization's recruitment practices, and that the relative effectiveness of the selection phase is inherently dependent upon the caliber of candidates attracted.
  • 47.
    47 From the analysis,recruitment and selection is of prime importance to Honda Company in order to get the best of employees, however, it faces lots of challenges in its quest to recruit its workforce. The issue of employee referrals seems to place unfair advantage over others, as more often than not, they are favoured compared to those who use a different channel. From the analysis it was realized that, more employee referrals are employed than those who apply in directly or through the agencies. Despite these challenges it was realized that these measures (recruitment and selection practices) have been effective in the selection of employees for Honda Company even though much needs to be done to enhance it. Recruitment and selection of employees to a greater extent determines the performance of an institution and it is of great importance if institutions want to achieve their goals. 3.16 Recommendations and management plan From the study it is realized that recruitment and selection is of great importance to every organization, though an integral part of human resource planning and development, it application and operation and challenges makes its practice quite difficult. These recommendations are therefore made to help make these practices more effective. All applicants must be treated fairly; issues of favouritism should be avoided while giving the chance to all. Employee referrals though a good idea should be minimized to cater for a certain number of people rather than a whole scale opportunity.
  • 48.
    48 That gives roomto favouritism and at times employment of individuals who might not contribute meaningfully to organizational output. The human resource department should appraise employees to help them give off their best and help improve performance of employees; this will always keep employees on their toes to give off their best. Refresher courses must be organized for employees for them to be abreast with trends in the ever growing market. It was revealed in the analysis that key talents are difficult to come by, the company can help upgrade the skills of some of its staff in areas they find difficult to recruit in the market. This will also go a long way to help staff contribute to the success of the company.
  • 49.
    49 References Armstrong, M. (1991)A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, 4th Edition, Kogan Page, London. Biles, George, E. & Holmberg, Stevan, R. (1980). Strategic Human Resource Planning, Glenn Ridge, New Jersey: Thomas Horton and Daughters. Bingley, Paul and Niels Westergaard-Nielsen (2004), Personnel Policy and Profit, Journal of Business Research, 57: 557-563. Burack, Elmer H. and Mathys, Nicholas J. (1985), Human Resource Planning, Lake Forrest, I1 Brace-Park Press. P130. Costello, D. (2006), Leveraging the Employee Life Cycle, CRM Magazine, 10 (12), 48- 48. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from Academic Search Premier Database. Cran Cheryl (1995), Employee Retention Strategy, How to Attract and Retain Top Performers, Sada NY, Blue Boulder Internet Publishing. Delery, J. E. and Doty. D. H. (1996), Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency and Configuration Performance Predictions, Academy of Management Journal. Volume.39, 802-835. Dess, Gregory, G. and Jason, D. Shaw (2001), Voluntary turnover, social capital, and Organizational performance, Academy of Management Review, 26(3): 446-456. Dessler, Gary (2000), Human Resource Management, Eighth Edition. New Jersey, USA, 2000.
  • 50.
    50 Drucker, P. (1999),Knowledge-Worker productivity: The Biggest challenge, California Management Review 41(2): 79-94. French, W. L. (1982), The Personnel Management Process, 5th ed,. Boston: Houghton Miffin. Gould, Richard (1984), Gaining a Competitive Edge through Human Resource Strategies, Human Resource Planning. Huselid, Mark A. (1995), The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Turnover, Productivity, and Corporate Financial Performance, Academy of Management Journal, 38: 635–672. Johnston, R. (1999), Supporting Learning in the Third Millennium. Human Resource Development, Learning. J. P. Wilson. Herndon, Stylus Publishing: 475-494. Jovanovic, Boyan (2004), Selection and the Evolution of Industry. Econometrica, 50(3): 649670. Kaplan, R. S., Norton, David P. (2004), Measuring the Strategic Readiness of Intangible Assets, Harvard Business Review 82(2): 52-64 Kelly D. (2006), Human Resource Development: For Enterprise and Human Development, http://ro.uow.edu.au/artspapers/114. Kersley, Barbara and Christopher Martin (1997), Productivity Growth, Participation and Communication, Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 44(5): 485-501.
  • 51.
    51 Miyake, D. (2002),Implementing Strategy with the Balanced Scorecard: An Introduction to the Strategy-Focused Organization, DM Review. Miyake, D. (2004), Implementing Strategy with the Balanced Scorecard: An Introduction to the Strategy-Focused Organization, DM Review. Mullins, L. J. (1999), Management and Organizational Behaviour, 5th Edition, Pearson Education, Essex. Odiorne, George, S. (1984), Human Resources Strategies for the Nineties, Hax. Smith, J. J., & Robertson, W. M. (1989), Manpower Planning and Development, The Developing World, International Human Resources Development Corporation. Boston, Massachusetts. Stoner, I., and Freeman, B. (1992), Tools for Manpower Planning, The World Bank Models, Washington, D.C. Walker, James (1990), Human Resource Planning, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., P95 Whitmell Associates (2004), Workforce and Succession Planning in the Libraries of the Australian Technology Network, Preparing for Demographic Change. Ontario, Canada.
  • 52.
  • 53.
    53 Abstract The main purposeof this case study was to investigate shared leadership in a team and its impact on the effectiveness of the team. This case study concentrates on internal team leadership with the shared leadership perspective, which emphasizes collaboration and relational processes of construction as the bases of leadership, pointing at the relational, collectivist and non-authoritarian nature of leadership practices in contemporary teams in organizations. Thus, the purpose of this study is to advance the understanding of the shared leadership phenomenon in self-managed teams, and especially to enhance understanding of shared leadership in team settings when all team members participate in the leadership process without formal leadership roles. The team selected for this case study was consisted of four members. They worked as couriers in Leopards Courier Services Lahore. The present case report was conducted in two phases. In first phase case history form was given to all team’s member to assess the demographic information. In second phase Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Teams (SPLIT), (Kauffeld,1978) was used to assess shared leadership in the team and Team Effectiveness Questionnaire was used to assess the effectiveness of the team. Results revealed that shared leadership increases the effectiveness of the team. The case team worked more effectively without a formal leader.
  • 54.
    54 Chapter I Introduction Leadership isnecessary for the effectiveness of the teams and organizations. The challenges facing organizations today require an exhaustive review of the strategic role of leadership. In this context, it is necessary to explore new types of leadership capable of providing an effective response to new needs. The present day situations, characterized by complexity and ambiguity, make it difficult for an external leader to perform all leadership functions successfully. Likewise, knowledge based work requires providing professional groups with sufficient autonomy to perform leadership functions. 1.1 Shred leadership Shared leadership has been conceptualized in many ways (Carson et al. 2007; Friedrich et al. 2009), but the underlying theme in these definitions is that shared leadership involves the distribution of the leadership responsibilities within the team, while not negating the possibility of vertical leadership. Shared leadership is seen as a group process by which leadership is distributed among, and stems from, team members (Pearce & Sims 2000). Shared leadership has also been defined it as leadership distributed among organizational units (Rawlings 2000) and a management model based on philosophy of shared governance, where those performing the work are the ones who best know how to improve the process (Jackson 2000). The quest for developing an integrative definition of shared leadership has been elusive. Avolio et al. (2009) declare that the most widely cited definition of shared leadership comes from Pearce & Conger (2003, 1), who define shared leadership as:
  • 55.
    55 a dynamic, interactiveinfluence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals or both. This influence process often involves peer, or lateral, influence and at other times involves upward or downward hierarchical influence. In the team context shared leadership can be seen as a relational, collaborative leadership process or phenomenon involving team members who influence one another mutually and share duties and responsibilities otherwise relegated to a single, central leader. The key is that the team as a whole participates in the leadership process. At the core of the concept of shared leadership is the idea that leadership is not the preserve of an individual but a fluid or emergent property rather than a fixed phenomenon (e.g. Day et al 2004; Harris 2008; Spillane 2006). This conception of leadership moves beyond trying to understand leadership through the actions and beliefs of single leaders to understanding leadership as a dynamic organizational entity. This study focuses on shared leadership in the team context. Shared leadership is seen as an emergent team property resulting from the distribution of leadership influence across multiple team members. Shared leadership entails sharing power and influence broadly among the team members rather than centralizing it in the hands of a single individual who acts in the clear role of a leader. By identifying the team itself as a key source of influence, this study points to the relational nature of leadership as a social construct where leadership is seen as social process of relating processes that are co- constructed by several team members. Based on recent theoretical developments concerned with relational, practice-based and constructionist approaches to the study of
  • 56.
    56 leadership processes, thiscase study proposes the study of leadership interactions, working processes and practices to focus on the construction of direction, alignment and commitment. During the research process, critical events, activities, working processes and practices of a case team have been examined and analyzed with the grounded theory –approach in the terms of shared leadership. There are a variety of components to this complex process and a multitude of factors that may influence the development of shared leadership. The study suggests that the development process of shared leadership is a common sense -making process and consists of four overlapping dimensions (individual, social, structural, and developmental) to work with as a team. For shared leadership to emerge, the members of the team must offer leadership services, and the team as a whole must be willing to rely on leadership by multiple team members. For these individual and collective behaviors to occur the team members must believe that offering influence to and accepting it from fellow team members are welcome and constructive actions. Leadership emerges when people with differing world views use dialogue and collaborative learning to create spaces where a shared common purpose can be achieved while a diversity of perspectives is preserved and valued. This study also suggests that this process can be supported by different kinds of meaning-making and process tools. Leadership, then, does not reside in a person or in a role, but in the social system. The built framework integrates the different dimensions of shared leadership and describes their relationships. In the real world, teams and organizations can create conditions to foster and facilitate the process. We should encourage leaders and team
  • 57.
    57 members to approachleadership as a collective effort that the team can be prepared for, so that the response is rapid and efficient. Teams play an increasingly essential role in the functioning of organizations (e.g. Goodwin, Burke, Wildman & Salas 2009; Hills 2007; Kozlowski & Bell 2003), and leadership becomes a crucial factor in the effectiveness of these teams (e.g. O’Reilly, Caldwell, Chatman, Lapiz & Self 2010; Zaccaro, Rittman & Marks 2001). The basic idea behind the use of teams is that team implementations involve some degree of empowerment of members. Teams typically work on distinct and relatively whole tasks, possess a variety of skills within their membership, and have authority and autonomy to make decisions about how and when work is done, and by whom (e.g. Cohen & Bailey 1997; Katzenbach & Smith 1993; Wellins, Byham & Wilson 1991). Through the decentralization of power, authority and decision-making responsibilities, organizations find flexibility and quick response capabilities necessary to stay competitive in their business (e.g. Ancona & Bresman 2007; Houghton, Neck & Manz 2003; Lipman-Blumen & Leavitt 2000). Teams tend to reduce the dependence on traditional leader authority figures. Establishing effective influence processes that enable teams to achieve positive outcomes usually requires nontraditional approaches to leadership – involving empowering others and sharing influence. Perhaps more than any other factor associated with work teams, empowerment has created demands for radical evolvement of leadership practices (Manz, Pearce & Sims 2009). It is an increasingly common expectation for employees to be able to work effectively in teams, where there is often no formally appointed leader (e.g. Day et al. 2004; Zaccaro, Heinen & Schuffler 2009).
  • 58.
    58 The complexity ofcurrent team arrangements is also a new challenge for team and team leadership research (Burke, Diaz Granados & Salas 2011; Mathieu et al. 2008; Yukl 2006). As the prevalence of teams has increased, researchers have sought to understand the factors that promote their effectiveness. One factor argued to be critical in determining team effectiveness is team leadership. Compared to traditional leadership, team varies leadership dynamically with the situation, assumes that subordinate roles and linkages are tightly coupled, and highlights coordination demands (Burke et al. 2011). Without leadership, the team members are unlikely to identify e.g. with the team objectives (Sivasubramaniam, Murry, Avolio & Jung 2002). As Zaccaro et al. (2001) maintain, the leadership processes influence also the team´s cognitive, motivational, and affective processes. Moreover, the leadership process affects the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the team members (Ensley, Pearson & Pearce 2003). 1.1.2 The nature of leadership in teams Effective team functioning is derived from several fundamental characteristics (Zaccaro et al. 2001). Teams need to define future directions and organize themselves to maximize progress along such directions. Thus, team leadership becomes a critical determinant of team performance. The team members need to integrate their individual actions and work with others in their team as they strive to accomplish the goals and objectives. Team dynamics can thus have an important influence on the performance of the team. Teams are also increasingly required to perform in complex environments where leadership and team performance may be dynamically and recursively related. The relationship between team performance and leadership can affect the evolution of the team, and as well as future leadership in the team and its performance (Day et al. 2006).
  • 59.
    59 Thus, team leadershipcan be considered an input to the team that influences mediating variables and leads to outcomes (e.g. performance) that can affect future inputs, such as leadership in subsequent periods (Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson & Jundt 2005; Mathieu et al. 2008). Conceptually, team researchers have converged on a view of teams as complex, adaptive, dynamic systems (McGrath, Arrow & Berdahl 2000). Over time and contexts, teams and their members cycle and recycle continually. They interact among themselves and with other persons in the contexts. These interactions change the teams, team members, and their environments in ways more complex than captured by simple cause- and-effect perspectives. As teams work together over time, they move through two interrelated kinds of performance cycles (Morgeson, Lindoerfer & Loring 2010). The first occurs with the passage of time as the team members gain experience of working with one another, and they move through a set of fairly universal experiences. What matters early in a team´s life is likely to differ from what matters later, in part because of the accumulation of experiences and the history of the team. The second kind of performance cycle is episodic. As teams interact, they cycle through distinct planning and action phases (Marks, Mathieu & Zaccaro 2001). Planning phases are times of transition where upcoming work is evaluated and planned. Action phases are times when teams perform tasks in the fulfillment of a goal. As teams work together over time, they cycle repeatedly through planning and action phases, and their need to vary across these phases. The reawakening of interest in teams is related to wider changes in the world of work and organizations driven by economic, strategic and technological imperatives. The
  • 60.
    60 pressures of globalcompetition, the need to consolidate business models in complex and shifting environments, and the pursuit of continuous innovation have led to a reappraisal of the team as a key element of the basic organizational architecture (e.g. Ancona & Bresman 2007; Kozlowski & Bell 2003). In this context, the joint action of individuals working together in a cooperative manner to attain shared goals through the differentiation of roles and functions, and the use of elaborate communication and coordination systems, are now viewed as essential to effectiveness and competitive advantage. This surge of interest in the use of teamwork has focused upon improving the performance outcomes of business processes. Teams are used in organizations for example to reduce costs and to improve such outcomes such as quality, productivity and process dependability as well as psychological benefits for the team members concerning self-belief and intrinsic motivation (for an overview, see e.g. Cohen & Bailey 1997; Kauffeld 2006; Tata & Prasad 2004; Yukl 2006). Zaccaro et al. (2009) have integrated existing frameworks into an overarching model of leadership and team dynamics. This model rests on two central assumptions. First, the impact of effective team leadership lies on fostering greater interconnectivity, integration, and coherence among team members. Team leadership establishes the direct and indirect conditions that help team members work well together. It contributes to the reduction of process loss. “The focus of analysis resides at the nexuses of team members´ actions, not on how team leadership influences individual attitudes, beliefs, motives, or behaviors” (Zaccaro et al. 2009, 93). The second assumption of the model extends the first one by arguing that the influence of leadership on team performance and effectiveness is mediated mostly by its effects on team interaction dynamics (Zaccaro et al. 2009).
  • 61.
    61 1.2 Approaches toleadership research in teams Several researchers have noted that we know surprisingly little about “how leaders create and handle effective teams” (Zaccaro et al 2001), and there needs to be more focus on the leadership of teams (Hackman & Walton 1986; Zaccaro et al. 2009). Thus, the application, conceptual and empirical work on team leadership has most commonly been done with the approach that suggests that leader behavior should vary with the function being performed (see e.g. Burke et al. 2011; Hackman & Wageman 2005; Hackman & Walton 1986; Morgesson, DeRue & Karam 2010; Zaccaro et al. 2001; Zaccaro et al. 2009). This functional perspective is defined as a normative approach to describing and predicting group performance that focuses on the functions of inputs and/or processes (Wittenbaum et al. 2004). Three core assumptions define the functional perspective: (1) groups are goal-oriented; (2) group performance varies in quality and quantity, and can be evaluated; and (3) internal and external factors influence group performance via the interaction process. This approach asserts that teams can be more effective as long as they are designed well, are composed of people with the requisite skills and knowledge, and have members who can work well with each other and with others outside the group (Cummings & Ancona 2005). The role of leadership is “to do, or get done, whatever is not being adequately handled for group needs” (McGrath 1962, 5; quoted e.g. in Hackman & Walton 1986). This approach defines team leadership in terms of social problem-solving processes that advance the team´s attainment of its performance goals. These processes include interpreting and diagnosing team problems, generating and valuating team solutions and implementing selected solutions (Zaccaro et al. 2001).
  • 62.
    62 Team leaders havebeen argued to engage in many kinds of behaviors to foster team effectiveness. Most of the work has extended traditional leadership theories to the areas of teams, neglecting the unique role of leaders in teams (Burke et al. 2011). Team leaders are heavily engaged in developing and maintaining the issues that facilitate a response to dynamic task and developmental contingencies. Despite this fact, it is important to recognize that e.g. the functional view of team leadership is deliberately inclusive when it comes to who satisfies team needs (Morgesson, DeRue & Karam 2010). Because multiple individuals are often capable of satisfying team needs, it has been suggested that we “devote attention to the study of leadership rather than leaders,” in part because of the “observation that many every-day groups have different leaders in different situations” (McGrath 1962, 3; quoted in Morgeson, DeRue & Karam 2010). For example, Kozlowski, Watola, Jensen, Kim and Botero (2009) discuss fluid and flexible leadership that adapts to the contingencies of the task, work demands, members´ competencies and the relationships among them. The ‘leader role’ can be transferred to different members and rotated among them according to the circumstances. Team leadership can be thus conceptualized as “the process of team need satisfaction in the service of enhancing team effectiveness” (Morgesson, DeRue & Karam 2010, 8). The studies of shared leadership generally consider leadership to be an influence process that any team member can choose to engage in. The work on shared leadership recognizes the same complexity present within organizational settings as was discussed also as a rationale of empowerment. It relies on underlying tenets that “those who are doing the job are often in best position to improve it” (Jackson 2000, 16). This form of leadership has been argued to be most useful when the tasks are interdependent and
  • 63.
    63 complex. Thus, sharedleadership is considered more effective when the team develops complex tasks related to knowledge creation (e.g. research and development, consultancy, decision making) (Pearce 2004). The current shared leadership models do not go far along the continuum towards fuller team engagement in leadership. Most research on shared leadership takes the approach that it is a static condition where the role behaviors may be explicitly divided or entirely shared (Yukl 2006). Individuals generally share some leadership attributes or tasks but this may be controlled by top-down leaders, or a range of leadership tasks are actively distributed but power and authority are not and distribution is ineffective. Much of the work on the interaction between leaders and teams also appears to make the assumption that the members that the leader is acting on are a homogenous unit in which the individuals are assumed to have similar characteristics and respond to the leader in the same way (Zaccaro et al. 2001). However, this is not the case in the real situation. Rather, the team members typically bring diverse skills and expertise to the table, which is an important precondition for the selective emergence of different individuals into the leadership role. Like Friedrich et al. (2009, 934) argue “rather than a defined set of two or more leaders sharing the leadership role, it may be more like a ‘whack-a-mole’ game in which the person with the most relevant skills and expertise ‘pops up’ at any given time”. This selective emergence of individuals can arise through informal channels but may be explicitly activated by a leader or a set of leaders.
  • 64.
    64 1.3 Team Effectiveness Sheaand Guzzo (1987b) defined team effectiveness as "production of designated products or services per specification" (p. 329). This overlooks the possibility that a team can "burn itself up" through unresolved conflict or divisive interaction, leaving members unwilling to continue working together (Hackman & Oldham, 1980, p. 169). We favor a broad definition that accounts for members' satisfaction and the group's future prospects as a work unit by incorporating team viability. At a minimum, this entails member’s satisfaction, participation, and willingness to continue working together. A more demanding definition might add cohesion, intermember coordination, mature communication and problem-solving, and clear norms and role small traditionally identified with team maturity. Performance means acceptability of output to customers within or outside the organization who receive team products, services, information, decisions, or performance events (such as presentations or competitions). The term ‘team’ typically refers to a group of two or more people who interact interdependently toward some common objectives or goals. For example Kozlowski and Ilgen (2006) define teams as being composed of individuals who to some degree (1) share a social identity as a unit, (2) possess common goals, (3) are interdependent in terms of tasks or outcomes, (4) have distinct roles within the team, and (5) are embedded in a larger organizational or societal context that they influence and are influenced by. As the focus in this research is on knowledge-based work teams, the interdependency of the team members is a critical feature of defining the essence of a team in organizational context (Salas, Rosen, Burke & Goodwin 2009). Key elements are also that the teams are empowered to attain goals that fit with the overall strategy of the organization and
  • 65.
    65 conform to goalsof the business units within which the teams are nested, and that the teams are empowered to have the knowledge, skills, information, resources, and power to perform in a manner that enables them to make a difference (Mohrman, Cohen and Mohrman Jr (1995). Katzenbach and Smith (1993) focus on performance in their definition of a team. In addition to team members having a common purpose, performance goals are connected to this purpose, for which everyone in the team is held mutually accountable. Katzenbach and Smith also believe that the concept of a team should be limited to a fairly small number of people with complementary skills, who interact directly. This helps also in distinguishing team from work groups, whose members do the same tasks jointly but do not require integration and coordination to perform the task (e.g. Forsyth 2010; Levi 2007). ‘Group’ is a more inclusive term than ‘team’. A team is not simply people who belong to the same group or who are coacting in the same place. The term ‘team’ has largely replaced ‘group’ in the literature, but the latter predominates in many studies because ‘group’ is used as the root word in the terminology. Also in this research when referring e.g. to research on group dynamics, the term ‘group’ is used. There has recently been an increase in the use of the term ‘team’ in settings that house knowledge work (e.g. DeNisi et al. 2003; Pearce 2004). The reason is clear. It is ever more difficult for any one person to have all the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for all aspects of knowledge work. This kind of a situation is typical in a wide variety of contexts ranging e.g. from cross-functional tasks in organizations to R&D labs, from education to consulting work. There is a need for knowledge based resources which include all the intellectual abilities and knowledge possessed by employees, as well as
  • 66.
    66 their capacity tolearn and acquire more knowledge (DeNisi et al. 2003). Thus, knowledge-based resources include what the employees have mastered, as well as their potential for adapting and acquiring new information.
  • 67.
    67 Chapter II Method 2.1 ResearchDesign Casestudy design was used to assess shared leadership and team effectiveness of the team. Questionnaire method was used to collect data. Case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions. Typically data were gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). 2.2 Sample The team consisted of four members were selected as a sample from Leopard Courier Services Gulberg Lahore, Pakistan. The age range of the participants was 20-43 and average age range was 26 years. All participants were couriers. Each participant has minimum 2-5 years’ experience in this field and is skilled person. The reason behind the selection of this sample was that it was convenient for researcher to collect data from this team because a researcher’s friend was also working in that team. Another reason was that researcher was interested to study the phenomenon of shared leadership and this team has no formal leadership that is why this sample was selected for this study.
  • 68.
    68 Table 2.1 Descriptive Statisticsof Demographic Variables (Education, Marital Status, Family system, & Family background) of the Sample. 2.3 Assessment Measures 2.3.1 Demographic information questionnaire A demographic information questionnaire was formed particularly for this case study. The questionnaire inquired information like age, hometown, current city, Variables f % Education Intermediate 2 50 Graduation 2 50 Marital Status Married 1 25 Unmarried 3 75 Family system Nuclear 2 50 Joint 2 50 Family Background Rural 1 25 Urban 3 75
  • 69.
    69 education, marital status,satisfaction level, responsibilities in team, relationship with the coworkers, likeness and dislikeness of their team members and supervisors and working experience in current industry. Some questions related to personal history were also asked in that questionnaire. Through those questions, information about educational carrier, past working experience, personal ascriptions, and relationship with coworker and goals for future was taken. 2.3.2 Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Team (SPLIT) Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Team (SPLIT) developed by Simone Kauffeld (1978) was used to assess the phenomena of shared leadership in teams. This scale comprised of 20 items. Cut of score for this scale was 60. All items were positive measure of shared leadership in a team. 2.3.3 Team Effectiveness Questionnaire (TEQ) The Team Effectiveness Questionnaire simply provides people with a mechanism for exploring and discussing aspects of behavior, found to lie at the heart of effective teams. The higher the scores, the greater the potential for effectiveness. But more importantly, from a learning perspective, the more variation in those scores between team members, the more there is to understand about why perspectives differ. The TEQ clusters behaviours into eight attributes or qualities. Clarify vision, Set targets and boundaries, Empower and authorize, Praise and acknowledge, Maintain vibrant internal communication, Encourage divergence and innovation, Champion the team externally, Share learning and improve and Celebrate and exploit diversity. 2.4 Inclusion criteria
  • 70.
    70  A courierteam was selected  Team without a formal leader was selected  All members were from the same company  Minimum education level was Intermediate 3.5 Exclusion criteria  Members working outside the office were excluded  Managerial staff members were also excluded from the study. 2.6 Procedure Present case study was completed in several phases. First phase was the selection of a team. Researcher contacted with the team through a friend. An authority letter was issued from institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore which explained nature of case study and request to give data. A consent form was also taken from institute of applied psychology university of the Punjab Lahore. An initial meeting was held at office of company at Gulberg Lahore and participants were informed about the nature of the study. They were told that data will be collected in two phases. It was assured to the participants that data will be kept confidential. All team members showed their consent to participate in this case study and agreed for the first session. The first session meeting was held in company’s office. A case study form containing information about the family, educational and professional history of the case was filled in. The participants were relaxed and participated in first session with full attention. The session was completed within 40 minute.
  • 71.
    71 After some daysteam was contacted again for the second phase of the study. The researcher explained the detail of the second session to the participants. The instruction was given to the participants. In this session all quantitative assessment measures were filled in by the participants. Second session ended in 1 hour and 40 minute. All assessment measures were analyzed against participant’s score on each scale. At the end, the participants were thanked for their cooperation. Quantitative analysis of all assessment measures and results were presented.
  • 72.
    72 Chapter III Results Table 3.1 Assessmentof shared leadership and Team Effectiveness. Variable Obtained Score Cutoff Score Level Shared Leadership 78 60 Very High Team Effectiveness Clarify vision 17 15 Average Empower and authorize 19 15 High Praise and acknowledge 21 15 High Maintain vibrant internal Communication 16 15 Average Encouragement 22 15 Very High Champion the team Externally 20 15 Very High Share learning and improve 18 15 High Celebrate and exploit Diversity 24 15 Very High 3.1 Case Formulation Leopards Courier Services team consisted of four members was selected from Leopards Courier Services Gulberg Lahore, Pakistan. Leopards Courier Services was inaugurated in 1983 with five destinations, serving as offices for Saadat insurance, as well as for Leopards Courier, with delivery restricted to five destinations alone.
  • 73.
    73 As industry developedin Pakistan, and more raw materials and other products were to be dispatched nationwide, the need for a courier service grew, and Leopards found itself fulfilling a bigger need-helping local industry grow. As a result of this business growth, Leopards has now expanded to over 1036 destinations for general clients (express centers). At each of these express centers, Leopards employees have been trained and placed to help clients find services that best fulfill their needs. Currently, they employ over 3000 couriers and 1000 express center employees. The Leopards Team is always when it comes to solving logistic and courier issues with new products, and continues to come up with new and innovative products, which help their company and employees grow. Case team consisted of four members. They all are couriers and supply things to the different places of the city. They were working in very friendly environment. They have good friendly and cohesive relationship among them. They all have equal responsibilities and equal duties. There was no concept of formal leadership in the team. All team members shared their leadership responsibilities and each member considered him responsible for their tasks and other activities within the team. Previous literature on shared leadership indicated that shared leadership instead of formal leadership is better for team performance or effectiveness. Because of shared leadership responsibilities team members work more effectively and they consider themselves responsible for each and every task. The impact of shared leadership on team effectiveness was revealed from results. The study suggested that the present team of Leopard Couriers Services did not have formal leader and their effectiveness of doing tasks was very good. Despite the augmentation effects shown for these leadership approaches with their emphasis on
  • 74.
    74 collective confidence, identity,and outcomes, the basic approach has been on followers’ individual performance and effectiveness rather than examining its effects in group contexts (e.g. Cox, Pearce & Parry 2003; Jung & Sosik 2002). Thus, in recent developments, shared leadership -models has challenged the notion of leader-centricity by re-focusing the leadership issue on a group-level, and there has been an emerging debate in the field of leadership studies on the notions of shared perspectives on leadership (see e.g. Pearce & Conger 2003; Parry & Bryman 2006). This debate has emerged from the practical advantages of sharing leadership duties between two or more persons in suitable situations (Carson et al. 2007; Pearce 2004; Spillane 2006), and advantages that are increasingly becoming the subject of empirical research (e.g. Carson et al. 2007; Ensley, Hmieleski & Pearce 2006; Hiller et al. 2006; Mehra, Smith, Dixon & Robertson 2006; Pearce & Sims 2002; Pearce, Yoo & Alavi 2004; Sivasubramaniam et al. 2002; Solanski 2008; Taggar, Hackett & Saha 1999). Taken as a whole, these studies supported that shared leadership is an important predictor of team performance, and provides an additional resource to teams beyond the leadership of any single individual. Results revealed that the team scored high on praise and acknowledgement. Praise and acknowledgement is the basic component of team effectiveness. The participative decision-making theory contributed prominently to shared leadership. Originally developed by Vroom and Yetton (1973), the normative model of leadership behavior proposed the possible involvement of subordinates in decision-making processes (Field & Andrews 1998; Pierce & Conger 2003). With this model Vroom and Yetton (1973) tried to specify which of a set of alternative decision making processes, varying in opportunity for subordinate participation, should be used in different situations. The model provided a
  • 75.
    75 decision tree consistingof seven factors for managers to follow based on responses to a set of situations. The participative decision making model allowed managers to examine these factors before deciding what level of involvement they should allow the subordinates to have in the decision-making process. The components of this model provided managers with decision styles labeled autocratic, consultative, or group-based (Field & Andrews 1998). The Vroom and Yetton model was revised during the 1980´s by Vroom and Jago (1988). This new version expanded the original Vroom and Yetton model with a more specific analysis of the decision situation. The new version contained five situational characteristics in addition to the original seven factors (Field & Andrews, 1998; Vroom & Yago 1988). Results also suggested that when all team members participate in the leadership process without formal leadership roles this promoted the effectiveness of the team and team performance of doing different tasks was good. The highest score of the team was on celebrate and exploit diversity component of effectiveness. They celebrate and exploit diversity in the team as their score was very high on this component of team effectiveness. The level encouragement among all the team members was also very high. The team has clear vision and good command on performing their tasks. The case team has a culture where each and every member received praise and acknowledgement from other members of his team. 3.2 Conclusion There were two types of measures used for assessment. Shared Professional Leadership Inventory for Team (SPLIT) showed that there was shared leadership in the
  • 76.
    76 team. They haveno formal leader in their team. All members of the team shared equal authority of decision making and all other tasks they performed. The Team Effectiveness Questionnaire assessed the performance and effectiveness of the team. It revealed that the case team has good collaborated way of working. All members were working effectively which was good for their team and also for the whole industry. They all were satisfied and their score was high on all dimensions of effectiveness (Clarify vision, Set targets and boundaries, Empower and authorize, Praise and acknowledge, Maintain vibrant internal communication, Encourage divergence and innovation, Champion the team externally, Share learning and improve and Celebrate and exploit diversity). 3.3 Limitations and suggestions There is no cross checking of information which is another question to validity of data. To overcome this limitation, so multiple rating should be used overcome this limitation. Fakeness of responses is possible because the whole assessment was based on self-reporting. According to the point of company and employer view to evaluate the team members should be included. Scales used in this study were not indigenous and norm based. Indigenous and norm based assessment measures should be used for this study. Another limitation of this study is the lack of training of study conductor. Study conductor should be trained and confident.
  • 77.
    77 References Ancona, D., &Bresman, H. (2007). X-teams: How to build teams that lead, innovate, and succeed. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current theories, research, and future directions. The Annual Review of Psychology, 421 - 449. Burke, C. S., DiazGranados, D., & Salas, E. (2011). Team leadership: A review and look ahead. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. Uhl-Bien, The Sage Handbook of Leadership (pp. 338 - 351). London: Sage. Carson, C. M., Mosley, D. C., & Boyar, S. L. (2004). Goal orientation and supervisory behaviors: Impacting SMWT effectiveness. Team Performance Management, 10(7/8), 152 - 162. Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. (1997). What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from shop floor to the executive suite. Journal of Management, 23, 239 - 290. Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. (1997). What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from shop floor to the executive suite. Journal of Management, 23, 239 - 290. Cox, J. F., Pearce, C. L., & Perry, M. L. (2003). Toward a model of shared leadership and distributed influence in the innovation process: How shared leadership can enhance new product development team dynamics and effectiveness. In C. L.
  • 78.
    78 Pearce, & J.A. Conger, (2005).Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp. 48 - 76). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cummings, T. G., & Ancona, D. G. (2005). The functional perspective. In S. A. Wheelan, The handbook of group research and practice (pp. 107 - 118). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Day, D. V., Gronn, P., & Salas, E. (2004). Leadership capacity in teams. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 857 - 880. Day, D. V., Gronn, P., & Salas, E. (2004). Leadership capacity in teams. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 857 - 880. DeNisi, A. S., Hitt, M. A., & Jackson, S. E. (2003). The knowledge-based approach to sustainable competitive advantage. In S. E. Jackson, M. A. Hitt, & A. S. DeNisi, Managing knowledge for sustained competitive advantage (pp. 3 - 33). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ensley, M. D., Pearson, A., & Pearce, C. L. (2003). Top management team process, shared leadership and new venture performance: A theoretical model and research agenda. Human Research Management Review, 13, 329 - 346. Field, R. H., & Andrews, J. P. (1998). Testing the incremental validity of the Vroom- Jago versus Vroom- Yetton models of participation in decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 11, 251 - 261. Forsyht, D. R. (2010). Group dynamics, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Centage Learning.
  • 79.
    79 Friedrich, T. L.,Vessey, W. B., Schuelke, M. J., Ruark, G. A., & Mumford, M. D. (2009). A framework for understanding collective leadership: The selective utilization of leader and team expertise within networks. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 933 - 958. Goodwin, G. F., Burke, C. S., Wildman, J. L., & Salas, E. (2009). Team effectiveness in complex organizations: An overview. In E. Salas, G. F. Goodwin, & C. S. Burke, Team effectiveness in complex organizations: Cross-disciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 3 - 16). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Hackman, J. R., & Wageman, R. (2005). A theory of team coaching. Academy of Management Review, 30, 269 - 287. Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman, & Associates, Designing effective work groups (pp. 72 - 119). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Harris, A. (2008). Distributed leadership: according to the evidence. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(2), 172 - 188. Hiller, N. J., Day, D. V., & Vance, R. J. (2006). Collective enactment of leadership roles and team effectiveness: A field study. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 387 - 397. Hills, H. (2007). Team-based learning. Burlington, VT: Gower. Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., & Manz, C. C. (2003). Self-leadership and superleadership: The hart and art of creating shared leadership in teams. In C. L.
  • 80.
    80 Pearce, & J.A. Conger, Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership (pp. 123 - 140). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. (2005). Teams in organizations: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 517 - 543. Jackson, S. (2000). A qualitative evolution of shared leadership barriers, drivers, and recommendations. Journal of Management in Medicine, 14(3/4), 166 - 178. Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (2002). Transformational leadership in work groups: The role of empowerment, cohesiveness, and collective-efficacy on perceived group performance. Small Group Research, 33(3), 313 - 336. Katzenbach, J. R.;& Smith, D. K. (1993). Tiimit ja tuloksekas yritys. Helsinki: Weilin&Göös. Kauffeld, S. (2006). Self-directed work groups and team competence. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 1 - 21. Kozlowski, S. W., & Bell, B. S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. Klimoski, Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology: Vol 12 (pp.333 - 375). London: Wiley. Kozlowski, S. W., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams. Psychology Science, 7, 77 - 124. Levi, D. (2007). Group dynamics for teams, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • 81.
    81 Lipman-Blumen, J.;& Leavitt,H. J. (2000). Kuumat ryhmät tuloksen tekijänä. Helsinki: WSOY. Manz, C. C., Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. (2009). The ins and outs of leading teams: An overview. Organizational Dynamics, 83(3), 179 - 182. Marks, M. A., Mathieu, J. E., & Zaccaro, S. J. (2001). A temporary based framework and taxonomy of team processes. Academy of Management Review, 26(3), 356 - 376. Mathieu, J., Maynard, M. T., Rapp, T., & Gilson, L. (2008). Team effectiveness 1997- 2007: A review of recent advancements and a glimpse into the future. Journal of Management, 34(3), 410 - 476. McGrath, J. E. (1962). Leadership behavior. Some requirements for leadership training. Washington, DC: U.S. Civil Service Commission, Office of Career Development. McGrath, J. E., Arrow, H., & Berdahl, J. L. (2000). The study of groups: Past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(1), 95 - 105. Mehra, A., Smith, B. R., Dixon, A. L., & Robertson, B. (2006). Distributed leadership in teams: The network of leadership perceptions and team performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 232 - 245. Mohrman, S. A., Cohen, S. G., & Mohrman Jr, A. M. (1995). Designing team-based organizations: New forms for knowledge work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Morgeson, F. P., Lindoerfer, D., & Loring, D. J. (2010). Developing team leadership capacity. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman, The Center
  • 82.
    82 for Creative LeadershipHandbook of Leadership Development, 3rd ed. (pp. 285 - 312). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. O'Reilly, C., Caldwell, D., Chatman, J., Lapiz, M., & Self, W. (2010). How leadership matters: The effects of leaders' alignment on strategy implementation. Leadership Quarterly, 21(1), 104 - 113. Parry, K. W., & Bryman, A. (2006). Leadership in organizations. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W. R. Nord, The Sage handbook of organization studies, 2nd ed. (pp. 447 - 467). London: Sage. Pearce, C. L. (2004). The future of leadership: Combining vertical and shared leadership to transform knowledge work. Academy of Management Executive, 18(1), 47 - 57. Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. (2004). Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr, Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations (pp. 180 - 203). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rawlings, D. (2000). Collaborative leadership teams: Oxymoron or new paradigm? Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 52(1), 36 - 48. Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., Burke, C. S., & Goodwin, G. F. (2009). The wisdom of collectives in organizations: An update of the teamwork competencies. In E. Salas, G. F. Goodwin, & C. S. Burke,(2000). Team effectiveness in complex organizations: Crossdisciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 39 - 79). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  • 83.
    83 Sivasubramaniam, N., Murry,W. D., Avolio, B. J., & Jung, D. I. (2002). A longitudial model of the effects of team leadership and group potency on group performance. Group & Organization Management, 27, 66 - 96. Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Tata, J., & Prasad, S. (2004). Team self-management, organizational structure and judgments of team effectiveness. Journal of Managerial Issues, 16(2), 248 - 265. Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (1988). Managing participation: A critical dimension of leadership. Journal of Management Development, 7(5), 32 - 42. Vroom, V. H., & Yetton, P. W. (1973). Leadership and decision-making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. Wellins, R., Byham, W., & Wilson, J. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating selfdirected work groups that improve quality, productivity, and participation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. Wittenbaum, G. M., Hollingshead, A. B., Paulus, P. B., Hirokawa, R. Y., Ancona, D. G., Peterson, R. S.,et al. (2004). The functional perspective as a lens for understanding groups. Small Group Research, 35(1), 17 - 43. Yukl, G. A. (2006). Leadership in organizations, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Zaccaro, S. J., Heinen, B., & Shuffler, M. (2009). Team leadership and team effectiveness. In E. Salas, G. F. Goodwin, & C. S. Burke, Team effectiveness in
  • 84.
    84 complex organizations: Cross-disciplinaryperspectives and approaches (pp. 83 - 111). New York, NYPsychology Press. Zaccaro, S. J., Rittman, A. L., & Marks, M. A. (2001). Team leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 451 - 483.