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Knowledge management(km) in education
The document discusses knowledge management (KM) in the context of educational institutions, emphasizing its significance for sustainability, organizational success, and effective teaching practices. It highlights the distinction between explicit and tacit knowledge, referencing the Nonaka and Takeuchi KM model, which illustrates how tacit knowledge can be transformed into explicit knowledge through collaborative practices like 'lesson study'. Overall, the text outlines the strategic integration of KM into school systems to improve teacher effectiveness, decision-making, and student learning outcomes.
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Knowledge management(km) in education
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- 5. Introduction 1. What isKnowledge? Explicit & Tacit Knowledge -Positivist Perspective of Knowledge -Social Constructivism Perspective of Knowledge 2.2. What is Knowledge Management? 3.3. How does KM contribute to Schools? 4.4. The Nonaka and Takeuchi Knowledge Management Model Course OutlineCourse Outline 5. The SECI Model and Japanese Lesson Study Four modes of knowledge conversion -socialization, -externalization, -combination , -internalization 6. Knowledge Management Strategy
- 6. To critically reviewessential concepts, theories and practices of knowledge management KM and explore the feasibility of applying KM to school education to; address the nature of knowledge and the definition of KM in applying Nonaka and Takeuchi’s knowledge conversion in schools to manage knowledge.. address how school culture, knowledge strategies & processes, staff competencies & IT affect the implementation of KM.
- 7. Knowledge Management (KM)is rapidly becoming one of the next big management trends in Education besides earlier trends like Business Process Re-engineering (BPR), Organizational Learning and TQM. INTRODUCTION KM is the key factor for organizational success and survival now. It is about how to build KM into the strategy process in Organizations.
- 8. It was observedthat managers typically spend too little time thinking seriously about strategy and the future. Gary Hamel and C.K. Prahalad We need to ensure that in this limited time, the important dimension of knowledge does not get overlooked. © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
- 9. Much had beenwritten about the philosophy, concepts of knowledge and intellectual capital but not much attention has been focused on; how to combine a knowledge perspective with established strategy tools, or how to develop unique knowledge-based sources of sustainable competitive advantage.
- 10. 1.What is Knowledge? Knowledgeis one of the most important assets of a school organization, - critical for school sustainability. It is “information in use, and the interaction of information with the human mind, which gives it meaning and purpose”.
- 11. . ” Knowledge isconstructed through an “accumulation of facts, procedural rules or heuristics through our daily experience and study”. It also involves the intelligence to acquire and apply what one has understood through learning and experience. Sallis and Jones (2002, p. 8)
- 12. “ Knowledge isderived from information but it is richer and more meaningful than information. It includes familiarity, awareness and understanding gained through experience or study, and results from making comparison, identifying consequences, and making connections.”
- 13. Distinctions are oftenmade between data, information, knowledge and wisdom. Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection (Davenport et al. 1998). Education, DOI 10.1007/978- 981-287-233-3_2
- 14. Knowledge is theunderstanding that people develop as they react to and use information, either individually or as an organization. They are; Explicit Knowledge and Tacit knowledge as distinguish by Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) There are however two distinct type of knowledge.
- 15. Explicit knowledge. - isknowledge that can be readily articulated, codified, accessed and verbalized. It can be easily transmitted to others in formal, systematic language, and removed from the original context of its creation or use. Most forms of explicit knowledge can be stored in certain media. Eg. of explicit knowledge, -Information contained in encyclopedias and textbooks.
- 16. People are notoften aware of this knowledge or how it can be valuable to others. - developed from direct experience and action, communicated through informal conversation and shared experience. Tacit knowledge - Is knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. - It has a personal quality, hard to formalize and communicate.
- 17. For example, Londonis in the United Kingdom is a piece of Explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient. Tacit knowledge can be defined as skills, ideas and experiences that people have but are not codified and may not necessarily be easily expressed (Chugh, 2015).[
- 18. Positivist Perspective ofKnowledge The classification of explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge is based on the positivist and non- positivist perspectives on what is the nature of knowledge (Vo 2012). The positivist perspective defines knowledge as justified true belief that can certainly be achieved. Knowledge -a commodity, which “exists prior to and independently from the knowing subject” Vo (2012)
- 19. Knowledge takes anexplicit form to represent a collection of objects and events in the world; therefore, “it is possible to codify, store, and transmit knowledge between people” For example, know-what is a form of explicit knowledge that can be explained by knowledge workers to others.
- 20. Knowledge could betranslated into actions to help solve practical problems and advance organizational practice (Tranfield and Starkey 1998). These characteristics enable knowledge workers to acquire, apply, share, store and even create knowledge. Knowledge management therefore, is management approach or strategy to develop the organization through managing knowledge resources.
- 21. - views knowledgeas a process and exists in tacit form. Social Constructivism Perspective of Knowledge Lave and Wenger articulate situated learning through participation and observation, “the social construction of knowledge is rooted in practice and practice articulates how knowledge could be used to organize a practical task”. (Situated Learning Legitimate Peripheral Participation) (1991)
- 22. Knowledge is sociallyconstructed and held collectively in organizations and is embedded in situated practices of the individual (Gherardi 2000). Although knowledge is situated in the historical, social and cultural contexts of the organization, it can be acquired through participation and created through mutual engagement in the negotiation process (Wenger 1998; Nicolini et al. 2003).
- 23. The phenomenon underinquiry for capturing knowledge cannot be separated from the knowledge process, but is instead contextual. Table A compares the knowledge view from the positivist and non- positivist perspectives.
- 24. Resides in knowledge individuals’minds and/or Communities of practice Social constructivism perspective Definition of knowledge A justified true belief Possessed by people “A collection of representations of the world, which is made up of a number of objects and events” (Chiva and Alegre 2005, p. 53) Socially constructed as a process Created by people Not as a representation, but as constructing or creating acts (Vo 2012) “Neither universal nor abstract, rather depends on context” (Chiva and Alegre 2005, p. 58) Existing form Visible, objective and rational Explicit knowledge Can be codified and stored Unseen, subjective and experience Based Tacit knowledge Shared through communication Location of knowledge Locates at written and verbal Information recorded in video, audio, databases and documents PersonalizationKM Strategies Codification Knowledge Positivist perspective
- 25. . Knowledge Management : -asystematic and integrative process of coordinating the organization with wide activities to retrieve, use, share, create and store knowledge, actionable information and expertise of individuals and groups in pursuit of organizational goals. (Cheng 2012; Rastogi 2000).
- 27. These KM processessupport organizational processes involving innovation, individual learning, collective learning and collaborative decision making. The fundamental principle underpinning KM in organizations is to ‘manage knowledge as a resource to fill the existing knowledge gap to improve the organization’s performance’. (Davenport and Prusak 1998).
- 28. The processes consistof formulation stages, implementation stages, and controlling stages with a systematic strategic management approach. Knowledge Management currently is a discipline which is growing very fast.. Organization needs to integrate fragmented landscape of KM with strategic management process
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- 30. KM maximizes organizationalknowledge-related effectiveness and prosperity with a sustainable competitive advantage, in creating a mechanism that measures, stores and transforms knowledge into intellectual capital. (Hatch and Dyer 2004). It increases staff’s capability to solve problems and organization’s ability to make improvements. (Sallis and Jones 2002)
- 31. KM concerns thesocialization process of knowledge, organizational learning and reflection, while information management (IM) focuses on data processing, constructing computer architectures and building taxonomies. However, KM needs to be built on effective information management, because managing knowledge is harder than managing Information.
- 32. KM provides insightsand experiences through socialization processes of information retrieval from IT tools to make decisions and carry out effective actions. The socialization process for knowledge creation differentiates KM from IM. as IM only serves the function of collecting and distributing information to people.
- 33. It consists ofa variety of other things beyond know- how, procedures, lessons learned, and all recognizable repositories of knowledge. Intellectual Capital Intellectual Capital is individual or collective knowledge in an organization that is used to gain a competitive advantage and to enhance the value of other types of capital (Casey 2010).
- 34. Intellectual Capital alsoincludes reputation, brand recognition, trust, and many other knowledge based qualities that strengthens professional competency of staffs. Implementing KM helps build Intellectual Capital by transforming the knowledge resources into intangible values.
- 35. Models for exploringIntellectual Capital and assessing its value and resources are disaggregated three component elements. They are the “tripartite model” i. human capital, ii. internal capital and iii. external capital (Kelly 2004; Sveiby 2001; Guthrie and Petty 2000).
- 37. The three componentsare interlinked, support and reinforce each other in an organization with; shared sense of purpose and entrepreneurial spirit focus on a high value on agility, governs more by carrot than stick.
- 38. Since KM isconcerned with simplifying and improving the processes of sharing, distributing, creating, capturing and understanding Knowledge, It serves as the process of creating value from an organization’s intangible assets therefore, the implementation of knowledge strategies (Liebowitz and Megbolugbe 2003)
- 39. What is KnowledgeManagement in Education? KM in Education is a process of strategic planning for sustainable development in; school culture, knowledge strategies and processes, staff competencies and information technology into the strategy process, and describes how these development affect the implementation of Knowledge Management.
- 41. How Does KMContribute to Schools KM in schools can be conceptualized as strategic management activities that support teachers to; collect information or make use of the organization’s knowledge resource to carry out their teaching & tasks effectively.
- 42. These knowledge managementpractices can help capture, codify and distribute knowledge in school; through the application of I.T. technologies or human interaction so that it can be shared by all teachers.
- 44. KM provides schoolswith adequate communication channels for teachers to discuss school issues with management. Teachers can reflect on & review other’s and develop further strategies & plans for improving school-based policy and teaching effectiveness. School policies can be adjusted in light of teacher feedback for maximizing student learning.
- 45. KM helps tocapture and retain experienced teacher knowledge in the school and strengthen the novice teacher’s knowledge through knowledge transfer in administrative work and teaching. KM strengthens the knowledge-sharing culture and build collegiality into the school organization. KM supports innovative teaching and effective learning.
- 46. KM Systems can cultivatepractice on lesson study for capturing, sharing, storing & creating pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Through conducting data mining in student test scores, teachers can identify students’ strengths and weaknesses for effective instructional design.
- 47. As a result,teachers’ professional development can be enhanced. With the building of a knowledge repository for student affairs services, KM provides a one-stop service to teachers and students to achieve information on student study advancement and career guidance, and teachers can be better equipped to provide student guidance and counseling.
- 48. For example, itis important to have a solid foundation of understanding about; What Knowledge Management is, What the key KM cycle processes are, and How these processes feed into a model, in order to interpret and set up a causal relationship.
- 49. Applying KM inschool education is a new concept; thus, we need a KM model to help us conceptualize the disparate elements of the complete picture in a way that; leads to a deeper understanding of how the knowledge process works within the school organization.
- 50. 4.4. The Nonakaand Takeuchi KM Model The Nonaka and Takeuchi KM model focuses on knowledge spirals that transforms tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and back again as the basis for individual, group and organizational innovation and learning. Japanese companies have been successful because they make use of their skills and expertise to create knowledge for innovation. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
- 51. Nonaka and Takeuchi’sstudy theorized that Japanese companies survived in the turbulent external environment by building a knowledge management system to create knowledge for renewal. Knowledge management in this sense is regarded as the means to manage rapid change within the organization.
- 52. The fundamental questionunderpinning the proposed theory is how to build a knowledge management system to; convert tacit knowledge in the market and the organization to explicit knowledge, and then to crystallize it into an innovative product.
- 53. The theory alsoincludes the ideas of re- conceptualization of organizational design and strategy from the perspective of knowledge creation. The Nonaka and Takeuchi KM model is basically a two- dimensional matrix depicting four possible scenarios of tacit and explicit knowledge interaction or conversion.
- 54. Nonaka and Takeuchi’sfour modes of knowledge conversion;- socialization, externalization, combination and internalization, create a dynamic process for organizational knowledge creation (see Fig A). Fig A.
- 55. Knowledge originates and develops in teachers Theschool / teachers internalize knowledge as common practice Teachers share explicit knowledge The school / other teachers embed knowledge in structural capital Fig. A Nonaka and Takeuchi’s four modes of knowledge conversion in a school context
- 56. Socialization is a processof creating common tacit knowledge through shared experiences. Externalization is a process of articulating tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge as concepts and/or diagrams.
- 57. Combination- is a processof assembling new and existing explicit knowledge into systemic knowledge, such as a new curriculum implementation plan and teaching methods. Internalization- is a process of embodying explicit knowledge into tacit, pedagogical knowledge such as having the “know-how” to teach.
- 58. The Nonaka andTakeuchi KM model has been widely applied to examine the knowledge process in educational organizations. Wu et al. (2013) applied the case study method to observe members of an educational organization using the SECI model, to explore the knowledge transfer and creation process of an educational organization. Knowledge originates and develops in teachers The school / teachers internalize knowledge as common practice Teachers share explicit knowledge The school / other teachers embed knowledge in structural capital
- 59. They found thatinternal organizational knowledge flow can be obtained through mutual interaction and sharing by the organization’s members, thereby strengthening the organization and the teaching skills of individual members.
- 60. Knowledge originates and develops in teachers Theschool / teachers internalize knowledge as common practice Teachers share explicit knowledge The school / other teachers embed knowledge in structural capital Joia (2002) did a case study to evaluate a program that aims to train in-service teachers in Brazilian K-12 public schools by using the SECI model. Joia found that only the socialization process (tacit to tacit knowledge) of the SECI model gave these teachers the skills and expertise to do their job well. This finding illustrates the tacit nature of teacher knowledge which is to be transferred via social learning.
- 61. The SECI modelis a descriptive theory that is rooted in a dialectic, epistemology of tacit and explicit knowledge. The SECI process outlines the conversions between tacit and explicit knowledge: Explicit knowledge can be converted to tacit knowledge and vice versa. 5. The SECI Model and Japanese Lesson Study
- 62. A core featureof Japan's system of professional learning is “lesson study”. Jugyou kenkyuu, As shown in the Fig, at the heart of the inquiry cycle is a “research lesson” It is a collaborative inquiry cycles that revolve around planning, observation, and analysis of live instruction. (Lewis & Hurd, 2011).
- 63. A lesson studyinvolves a group of teachers meeting regularly for a few months to a year to work on the; design, implementation, testing and improvement of one or several ‘research lessons’ (Stigler and Hiebert 1999, p. 110).
- 64. The focus ofthe ‘research lesson’ is a specific teacher- generated problem, goal or vision of pedagogical practice, carefully planned with colleagues, observed by other teachers, recorded for analysis and reflection, and discussed by all members of the lesson study group, other colleagues, leaders or invited commentators (Lewis and Tsuchida 1998).
- 65. The concrete stepsof a lesson study which are thought to lead to increased professional knowledge and skills are; . (Stigler and Hiebert 1999, pp. 112–115): 1 Defining and research problem. 2 Plan the lesson. 3 Teach and observe the lesson 4 Evaluate lesson and reflect its effect. 5 Revisit the lesson. 6 Teach and observe the revised lesson. 7 Evaluate and reflect a second time 8 Sharing the results. lesson study for increased professional knowledge and skills
- 66. Adaptations of anyimported innovations often have a life of their own. Thus, attempts to adapt the practice of Jugyou kenkyuu vary widely across countries, especially since information about it is mostly published in Japanese.
- 67. Nonaka and Takeuchi’sfour modes conversion model can be applied in schools to explain how teachers share their tacit and explicit knowledge through Lesson Study. Lesson study is a type of action research and professional development activity in which teachers collaborate to create effective lessons and examine their practice (Fernandez 2002; Lewis 2002).
- 68. Combination Combination is aprocess of converting explicit knowledge into a more usable form. In planning a lesson, teachers work together to choose the topic, define a research problem, and plan the lesson.
- 69. Combination This collaborative lessonplanning process involves the combination of teachers’ own conceptual understanding of the subject knowledge and how they dealt with the subject knowledge in the past. The combination of explicit knowledge allows teachers to design learning activities that will tackle student learning difficulties.
- 70. Internalization Internalization is aprocess of understanding and absorbing explicit knowledge, thus turning it into tacit knowledge held by the individual. After the planning stage, the research lesson is taught by one of the teachers in the group and observed by others.
- 71. Internalization The teachers whoenact the lesson plan and explicit teaching theories can then internalize the tacit knowledge through enactment of the lesson plan. Tacit knowledge is actionable by the owner via actually doing or through simulations. The enactment of the lesson plan is an internalization process that transfers school and team explicit knowledge to the individual.
- 72. Internalization As teachers applythe knowledge shared in the lesson planning in their teaching practices, the explicit knowledge is being internalized to become the teachers’ personal knowledge (Kolb 1984).
- 73. Socialization The process thattransfers tacit knowledge from one person to tacit knowledge in another. It is primarily a process between individuals. It involves capturing knowledge by direct interaction and sharing experience with individuals outside and inside an organization. The lesson implementation is videotaped for detailed analysis in the meeting.
- 74. Socialization Immediately after thelesson, a post-lesson conference is conducted, where the teachers reflect on the lesson and suggest improvements. A second teacher will revise the lesson plan, taking into account the suggestions and the post- test results, and teach the revised lesson to another class. This lesson will be videotaped, discussed and revised.
- 75. This process isrepeated until all the teachers have taught the lesson to their respective classes. Socialization Teaching practice articulates how pedagogic knowledge could be organized to a practical teaching task in order to enhance student problem- solving ability.
- 76. Since tacit knowledgeis situated in a lesson study committee, Socialization it is acquired through some form of participation, and is continually reproduced and negotiated, as shown in the study by Nicolini et al. (2003).
- 77. tacit knowledge is extractedand co- constructed through discussion and collaboration. Socialization Participation in lesson planning, teaching and the post-lesson conference is a socialization process in which,
- 78. Externalization The process formaking tacit knowledge explicit is externalization. When all teaching cycles are completed, teachers conduct an evaluation meeting as part of the final evaluation stage. This involves data triangulation among the test scores, student interview data, and video analysis of the teaching practice, with the aim of finding a relationship between how teachers handled the subject and what the students learned.
- 79. In the evaluationmeeting, the teachers will suggest further improvements and revise the lesson design for future reference. Externalization They are encouraged to reflect on what they have learned through the lesson study by conducting a public presentation, thus turning their tacit knowledge into transferable explicit knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995).
- 80. Externalization Finally, the wholeexperience is written up as a case report, which becomes a transferable and shared inventory of the school. The pedagogical content knowledge is coded in the form of a teaching manual, meeting records and the case report. The application of the SECI model to schools is illustrated by the lesson study.
- 81. Externalization The SECI modelcould be adopted to create pedagogical knowledge by building a knowledge-sharing platform or knowledge management system. School leaders should consider nurturing a set of conditions that support and sustain the knowledge creation process. (e.g. creating an organizational learning culture, developing teacher PKM competency, cultivating a professional learning community, and institutionalizing a knowledge management system).
- 82. Externalization In Takeuchi andNonaka’s (2004) discourse, KM is framed as a management perspective and not as a set of tools and methods to leverage knowledge. They believe that KM is at the centre of what management has to do in a fast-changing, complex and uncertain world. They also state that since knowledge creation is at the heart of management in today’s knowledge society, that model will serve as the universal model for management at large.
- 83. . KM strategyis a plan that describes how to manage its information and knowledge better for the benefit of that organization and its stakeholders. 6. Knowledge Management Strategy The primary purpose is to guide executives on choices to initiate KM projects according to; goals, organizational character, technological, behavioral, or economic biases..
- 84. Knowledge management strategyrefers to the overall approach an organization intends to take to align its knowledge resources and capabilities for enhancing organizational performance. KM strategies can be divided into two categories: 1. Codification for knowledge storing; 2. Interpersonal interactive knowledge sharing (Hansen et al. 1999; Zack 1999).
- 86. In such instances,individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, and also retrieve knowledge they need, which other individuals have added to the repository. These strategies usually apply IT to facilitate the processes of knowledge retrieval, storage and utilization.
- 87. Interpersonal interactive knowledgesharing emphasis the use of dialogue through social networks, including occupational groups and teams, and knowledge can be obtained in this way from experienced and skilled people. (Swan et al.2000). In such instances, individuals can provide their insights to the particular person or people in need of them (Snowden 2002).
- 88. It helps toshare knowledge through person-to- person contact. This strategy attempts to acquire internal and opportunistic knowledge and share it informally (Jordan and Jones 1997). It involves the knowledge processes of retrieval, sharing and utilization
- 89. In School Education,knowledge management; KM provides a platform for teachers to discuss different teaching ideas & to post resources for student learning. Retains expertise of experienced teachers, increases effectiveness in teaching and learning performance, supports development of a knowledge community in schools and fosters culture of learning (Leung 2010)
- 90. leadership andchange management, strategies and goals, organizational learning, technical support, school culture and trust among teachers. Leung (2010) Critical factors affecting Knowledge Management in school contexts are;
- 91. Effective knowledge strategies forbuilding school intellectual capital are knowledge sharing via interpersonal interaction, rather than the codification strategies for knowledge storing. (Zack 1999) Successful KM in a school involves aspects such as accessibility of IT, strong leadership, cultural influences, organizational structure and human characteristics.
- 92. Decision making andorganizational learning is another emphasized KM strategies. Personal strategies are highly correlated with positive KM environments in schools. Personal strategies also tend to influence the knowledge culture within schools .
- 93. The quality ofdata kept within schools, and the extent to which decision making in schools was information- driven. Personal strategies can manipulate the way people seek and tolerate new knowledge, and how ideas are valued and used. Abdul Hamid (2008)
- 94. Higher levels ofpersonal knowledge result in a stronger quality decision making process in schools. This strengthens strategies of seeking, receiving, analyzing, using, storing, retrieving and disseminating information.
- 95. List down whathave you learned from this Seminar on Knowledge Management that you can practice and apply at your School. and Discuss this tomorrow during the Reflection session. What are the expected Results /Outcomes of this application?
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Editor's Notes
- #3 ED Soliman Please text us at 09175147952.
- #4 School-based management (SBM) is the decentralization of levels of authority to the school level. Responsibility and decision-making over school operations is transferred to principals, teachers, parents, sometimes students, and other school community members. The school-level actors, however, have to conform to, or operate, within a set of centrally determined policies. SBM programs take on many different forms, both in terms of who has the power to make decisions as well as the degree of decision-making devolved to the school level. While some programs transfer authority to principals or teachers only, others encourage or mandate parental and community participation, often in school committees (sometimes known as school councils). In general, SBM programs transfer authority over one or more of the following activities: budget allocation, hiring and firing of teachers and other school staff, curriculum development, textbook and other educational material procurement, infrastructure improvement, setting the school calendar to better meet the specific needs of the local community, and monitoring and evaluation of teacher performance and student learning outcomes. SBM also includes school-development plans, school grants, and sometimes information dissemination of educational results (otherwise known as ‘report cards’). Starting in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada, SBM programs have been implemented and are currently being developed in a number of countries, including Hong Kong (China). The majority of the SBM projects in the current World Bank portfolio are in Latin American and South Asian countries, including Argentina, Bangladesh, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Mexico, and Sri Lanka. There are also two Bank-supported SBM projects in Europe and Central Asia (in FYR Macedonia and in Serbia and Montenegro), and one each in East Asia and the Pacific (the Philippines), the Middle East and North Africa (Lebanon), and Sub-Saharan Africa (Lesotho). Other projects and programs have been introduced more recently in Madagascar, the Gambia, and Senegal. Why is school-based management important? Advocates of SBM assert that it should improve educational outcomes for a number of reasons. First, it improves accountability of principals and teachers to students, parents and teachers. Accountability mechanisms that put people at the center of service provision can go a long way in making services work and improving outcomes by facilitating participation in service delivery, as noted in the World Bank’s 2004 World Development Report, Making Services Work for Poor People. Second, it allows local decision-makers to determine the appropriate mix of inputs and education policies adapted to local realities and needs. Impact of school-based management Evaluations of SBM programs offer mixed evidence of impacts. Nicaragua’s Autonomous School Program gives school-site councils – comprised of teachers, students and a voting majority of parents – authority to determine how 100 percent of school resources are allocated and authority to hire and fire principals, a privilege that few other school councils in Latin America enjoy. Two evaluations found that the number of decisions made at the school level contributed to better test scores (King and Ozler 1998; Ozler 2001). Mexico’s compensatory education program provides extra resources to disadvantaged rural primary schools and all indigenous schools, thus increasing the supply of education. However, the compensatory package has several components. If one breaks the intervention up in its multiple components, then it is shown that empowering parent associations seems to have a substantial effect in improving educational outcomes, even when controlling for the presence of beneficiaries of Mexico’s large and successful conditional cash transfer program (Oportunidades, formerly Progressa). This is strong evidence of the positive effects of decentralizing education to the lower levels (Gertler, Patrinos and Rubio forthcoming). Various evaluations of SBM programs in the United States have found evidence of decreased dropout and student suspension rates but no impact on test scores.
- #7 School Performance (quality of instruction ) Students Achievements (equity in areas of student participation including the poorest sector society)
- #11 Knowledge is one of the most important assets of a school organisation, and is critical for school sustainability. Sallis and Jones (2002, p. 8) defined knowledge as “information in use, and the interaction of information with the human mind, which gives it meaning and purpose.” Knowledge is constructed through an “accumulation of facts, procedural rules or heuristics through our daily experience and study”. It also involves the intelligence to acquire and apply what one has understood through learning and experience. The knowledge management glossary of the National Electronic Library for Health (2010) provides a comprehensive definition of knowledge: “Knowledge is derived from information but it is richer and more meaningful than information. It includes familiarity, awareness and understanding gained through experience or study, and results from making comparisons, identifying consequences, and making connections.” Distinctions are often made between data, information, knowledge and wisdom. Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection (Davenport et al. 1998). In organisations, knowledge often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organisational routines, processes, practices and norms (Davenport and Prusak 1998, p. 5). Knowledge could also be defined as a form of capital, as Stewart (1997) states that transformation of information into knowledge is a critical step in value creation, which determines what kind of advantage an enterprise has in competition. Chapter 2 Knowledge Management for School Development . The Author(s) 2015 E.C.K. Cheng, Knowledge Management for School Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-233-3_2
- #12 Knowledge is one of the most important assets of a school organisation, and is critical for school sustainability. Sallis and Jones (2002, p. 8) defined knowledge as “information in use, and the interaction of information with the human mind, which gives it meaning and purpose.” Knowledge is constructed through an “accumulation of facts, procedural rules or heuristics through our daily experience and study”. It also involves the intelligence to acquire and apply what one has understood through learning and experience. The knowledge management glossary of the National Electronic Library for Health (2010) provides a comprehensive definition of knowledge: “Knowledge is derived from information but it is richer and more meaningful than information. It includes familiarity, awareness and understanding gained through experience or study, and results from making comparisons, identifying consequences, and making connections.” Distinctions are often made between data, information, knowledge and wisdom. Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection (Davenport et al. 1998). In organisations, knowledge often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organisational routines, processes, practices and norms (Davenport and Prusak 1998, p. 5). Knowledge could also be defined as a form of capital, as Stewart (1997) states that transformation of information into knowledge is a critical step in value creation, which determines what kind of advantage an enterprise has in competition. Chapter 2 Knowledge Management for School Development . The Author(s) 2015 E.C.K. Cheng, Knowledge Management for School Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-233-3_2
- #84 the branch of science concerned with classification, especially of organisms; systematics. the classification of something, especially organisms. "the taxonomy of these fossils" a scheme of classification. plural noun: taxonomies "a taxonomy of smells"
- #96 Capture the view of the school facilities and their use through the eyes of the daily users, both students and staff.
- #98 School-based management (SBM) is the decentralization of levels of authority to the school level. Responsibility and decision-making over school operations is transferred to principals, teachers, parents, sometimes students, and other school community members. The school-level actors, however, have to conform to, or operate, within a set of centrally determined policies. SBM programs take on many different forms, both in terms of who has the power to make decisions as well as the degree of decision-making devolved to the school level. While some programs transfer authority to principals or teachers only, others encourage or mandate parental and community participation, often in school committees (sometimes known as school councils). In general, SBM programs transfer authority over one or more of the following activities: budget allocation, hiring and firing of teachers and other school staff, curriculum development, textbook and other educational material procurement, infrastructure improvement, setting the school calendar to better meet the specific needs of the local community, and monitoring and evaluation of teacher performance and student learning outcomes. SBM also includes school-development plans, school grants, and sometimes information dissemination of educational results (otherwise known as ‘report cards’). Starting in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada, SBM programs have been implemented and are currently being developed in a number of countries, including Hong Kong (China). The majority of the SBM projects in the current World Bank portfolio are in Latin American and South Asian countries, including Argentina, Bangladesh, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Mexico, and Sri Lanka. There are also two Bank-supported SBM projects in Europe and Central Asia (in FYR Macedonia and in Serbia and Montenegro), and one each in East Asia and the Pacific (the Philippines), the Middle East and North Africa (Lebanon), and Sub-Saharan Africa (Lesotho). Other projects and programs have been introduced more recently in Madagascar, the Gambia, and Senegal. Why is school-based management important? Advocates of SBM assert that it should improve educational outcomes for a number of reasons. First, it improves accountability of principals and teachers to students, parents and teachers. Accountability mechanisms that put people at the center of service provision can go a long way in making services work and improving outcomes by facilitating participation in service delivery, as noted in the World Bank’s 2004 World Development Report, Making Services Work for Poor People. Second, it allows local decision-makers to determine the appropriate mix of inputs and education policies adapted to local realities and needs. Impact of school-based management Evaluations of SBM programs offer mixed evidence of impacts. Nicaragua’s Autonomous School Program gives school-site councils – comprised of teachers, students and a voting majority of parents – authority to determine how 100 percent of school resources are allocated and authority to hire and fire principals, a privilege that few other school councils in Latin America enjoy. Two evaluations found that the number of decisions made at the school level contributed to better test scores (King and Ozler 1998; Ozler 2001). Mexico’s compensatory education program provides extra resources to disadvantaged rural primary schools and all indigenous schools, thus increasing the supply of education. However, the compensatory package has several components. If one breaks the intervention up in its multiple components, then it is shown that empowering parent associations seems to have a substantial effect in improving educational outcomes, even when controlling for the presence of beneficiaries of Mexico’s large and successful conditional cash transfer program (Oportunidades, formerly Progressa). This is strong evidence of the positive effects of decentralizing education to the lower levels (Gertler, Patrinos and Rubio forthcoming). Various evaluations of SBM programs in the United States have found evidence of decreased dropout and student suspension rates but no impact on test scores.