Orbital Infrastructure and the Expanding Cyberattack Surface

For centuries, national defense has relied on physical borders and kinetic deterrence. Today’s threats, however, are increasingly digital, distributed, and difficult to detect. Targets extend far beyond the tools to make war or produce goods. Depending on ability and motivation, threat actors can attack nearly anything, from satellites in orbit to your cloud-connected refrigerator, with methods and technologies that are fluid and changing on a scale that can often be measured in days, if not hours.

In an increasingly interconnected world, the concept of the cyberattack surface has become central to national security, encompassing all the vectors through which unauthorized access or malicious activities can occur. This includes the physical (such as tampering with ground station hardware or introducing compromised components through supply chain), the digital (which consists of leveraging software vulnerabilities or misconfigured cloud services) and the human element (as attackers often resort to social engineering ploys to trick system users into downloading malware or allowing system access). As infrastructure becomes more complex, particularly in critical areas such as supply chains and space-based assets, the attack surface expands dramatically, posing serious risks to national security.

Threats Reach New Heights

Satellites, vital to national security, represent attractive and accessible targets for adversaries. Certainly, orbital infrastructure is nothing new, but the sheer volume of assets above our heads is. Since the launch of Sputnik in 1957, the number of satellites has exploded. In 1970 there were 130 satellites in orbit. By the year 2000, there were more than 1,000. Today, more than 12,000 devices orbit the earth. Supporting systems like encrypted military communications, early warning missile systems, GPS navigation, remote sensing, surveillance, and command and control; space-based infrastructure is a prime target for nation-states and their proxies.

The scope and scale of that infrastructure offer countless points of entry for attackers through systems run by thousands of organizations. Despite their strategic importance, many space-based systems were not designed with cybersecurity as a priority. Moreover, attribution in space-based cyberattacks remains difficult. This ambiguity complicates deterrence policies and may encourage more aggressive behavior from adversaries, particularly in gray-zone conflicts where cyber operations fall below the threshold of traditional warfare

“Cyberspace is the soft underbelly of our global space networks.” (Lieutenant General Stephen Whiting, commander of the U.S. Space Force’s Space Operations Command in a 2022 Space News interview.)

Satellite attack surfaces include ground station software and control interfaces, onboard computers and telemetry systems, radio frequency communication links, in-orbit networking protocols, as well as the supply chains supporting them. Cyberattacks on satellites can take many forms, from jamming or spoofing GPS signals, gaining unauthorized access to satellite command and control systems, or injecting malware via compromised ground stations. Such breaches could degrade or disable critical defense capabilities, obscure battlefield intelligence, or disrupt civilian infrastructure reliant on satellite data. The threat is further magnified by the involvement of commercial satellite providers in national defense operations—a convergence that blurs the lines between public and private attack surfaces.

Beyond direct military implications, civilian sectors that rely on satellite services—such as aviation, maritime logistics, weather forecasting, and financial systems—could also be affected. The 2022 Viasat KA-SAT Cyberattack during the early stages of the Russia-Ukraine conflict demonstrated how cyberattacks on commercial satellite infrastructure can have direct military and geopolitical implications. The incident disrupted communications for both military forces and civilians across Europe, highlighting the potential of satellite systems as a target in warfare.

The Dark Side of Digital Transformation

In February 2011, during his testimony before the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, CIA Director Leon Panetta warned, "the potential for the next Pearl Harbor could very well be a cyberattack." In the intervening years, the threat has only grown. The internet has been part of a complex web of global communications infrastructure for decades. So, why is it such a national security risk now?

As physical and digital systems have become more tightly coupled, the number of potential entry points for cyber adversaries has multiplied. A 2023 editorial on the Chief IT website posits that we have reached a tipping point where the expanded cyberattack surface is now a structural byproduct of digital transformation.

There are several reasons for this phenomenon:

Interconnected Infrastructure

Globally, we have integrated physical systems, digital networks, and software platforms across sectors and geographies. This includes everything from smart power grids and intelligent transportation systems to global supply chains and satellite systems. They are all tied together with and reliant on real-time data flows, cloud computing, application programming interfaces (APIs), and third-party services to enhance efficiency, responsiveness, and scalability.

However, as systems are linked together, their security becomes only as strong as the weakest link in the chain. A vulnerability in one component—be it a remote sensor, vendor platform, or legacy database—can provide a backdoor into an otherwise secure system. The more integrated these systems become, the larger and more complex the cyberattack surface grows.

Cloud Computing

The widespread adoption of cloud services—from Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) platforms like AWS and Microsoft Azure to Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) solutions—has revolutionized how organizations store and access data. However, it has also significantly expanded the cyberattack surface in several ways. Cloud environments are often decentralized with distributed computing resources spread across regions and providers, complicating security oversight. Misconfigured virtual machines can leave sensitive data exposed to the public internet. Security in the cloud is a shared responsibility between provider and user, but many organizations fail to fully understand their role in protecting cloud assets. Also, cloud platforms rely heavily on APIs, which, if poorly secured, can become major attack vectors. Cloud environments offer immense scalability and flexibility, but without strong governance and visibility, they can also facilitate large-scale breaches.

Digital Supply Chains

Organizations have grown deeply connected to each other via platforms, APIs, vendors, and service providers. This interconnectivity, while essential for modern operations, means that a breach in one system can cascade across many others. An agency or company may have strong internal security but still be vulnerable through a weaker third-party partner. Integrations often require access to sensitive data which, if improperly secured, can be leaked or stolen. Weak single sign-on and federated identity systems, if compromised, can provide access to multiple domains in the network. The nature of integrated supply chains has transformed isolated risks into systemic vulnerabilities.

A Coordinated, Strategic Response

As the cyberattack surface continues to expand, national security strategies must adapt accordingly. Full-spectrum cyber protection methods can defend satellites and critical infrastructure by integrating advanced cybersecurity measures across hardware, software, networks, and operations. The approach will need to include a mix of threat intelligence, resilience planning, real-time monitoring, intrusion detection systems, and response protocols to identify and neutralize attacks before they cause disruption and damage.

The nation is stepping up to the challenge, making inroads to securing critical infrastructure. The August 2025 deployment of the NTS-3 satellite represents the most advanced U.S. experimental navigation system in fifty years. Providing global positioning for military, civilian, and commercial users, NTS-3 is linked by reprogrammable software, allowing agile response to threats across the full-spectrum of cyber as they evolve. This could be the model for a new breed of highly resilient space-based assets.

The cyberattack surface for national security has drifted far beyond traditional defense networks, extending deep into commercial supply chains and orbital infrastructure. As adversaries exploit these avenues, governments—in concert with the industries that support them—must develop their cyber strategies with equal urgency.

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